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<html>
<body>
<center>
<h1>HOW TO WRITE A RESOURCE GRAMMAR</h1>
<p>
<a href="http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~aarne/">Aarne Ranta</a>
<p>
30 November 2005
</center>
<p>
The purpose of this document is to tell how to implement the GF
resource grammar API for a new language. We will <i>not</i> cover how
to use the resource grammar, nor how to change the API. But we
will give some hints how to extend the API.
<p>
<b>Notice</b>. This document concerns the API V. 1.0 which has not
yet been released. You can find the beginnings of it
in <tt>GF/lib/resource-1.0/gf</tt>, but the locations of
files are not yet final.
<h2>The resource grammar API</h2>
The API is divided into a bunch of <tt>abstract</tt> modules.
The following figure gives the dependencies of these modules.
<center>
<img src="Lang.png">
</center>
It is advisable to start with a simpler subset of the API, which
leaves out certain complicated but not always necessary things:
tenses and most part of the lexicon.
<center>
<img src="Test.png">
</center>
The module structure is rather flat: almost every module is a direct
parent of the top module (<tt>Lang</tt> or <tt>Test</tt>). The idea
is that you can concentrate on one linguistic aspect at a time, or
also distribute the work among several authors.
<h3>Phrase category modules</h3>
The direct parents of the top could be called <b>phrase category modules</b>,
since each of them concentrates on a particular phrase category (nouns, verbs,
adjectives, sentences,...). A phrase category module tells
<i>how to construct phrases in that category</i>. You will find out that
all functions in any of these modules have the same value type (or maybe
one of a small number of different types). Thus we have
<ul>
<li> <tt>Noun</tt>: construction of nouns and noun phrases
<li> <tt>Adjective</tt>: construction of adjectival phrases
<li> <tt>Verb</tt>: construction of verb phrases
<li> <tt>Adverb</tt>: construction of adverbial phrases
<li> <tt>Numeral</tt>: construction of cardinal and ordinal numerals
<li> <tt>Sentence</tt>: construction of sentences and imperatives
<li> <tt>Question</tt>: construction of questions
<li> <tt>Relative</tt>: construction of relative clauses
<li> <tt>Conjunction</tt>: coordination of phrases
<li> <tt>Phrase</tt>: construction of the major units of text and speech
</ul>
<h3>Infrastructure modules</h3>
Expressions of each phrase category are constructed in the corresponding
phrase category module. But their <i>use</i> takes mostly place in other modules.
For instance, noun phrases, which are constructed in <tt>Noun</tt>, are
used as arguments of functions of almost all other phrase category modules.
How can we build all these modules independently of each other?
<p>
As usual in typeful programming, the <i>only</i> thing you need to know
about an object you use is its type. When writing a linearization rule
for a GF abstract syntax function, the only thing you need to know is
the linearization types of its value and argument categories. To achieve
the division of the resource grammar to several parallel phrase category modules,
what we need is an underlying definition of the linearization types. This
definition is given as the implementation of
<ul>
<li> <tt>Cat</tt>: syntactic categories of the resource grammar
</ul>
Any resource grammar implementation has first to agree on how to implement
<tt>Cat</tt>. Luckily enough, even this can be done incrementally: you
can skip the <tt>lincat</tt> definition of a category and use the default
<tt>{s : Str}</tt> until you need to change it to something else. In
English, for instance, most categories do have this linearization type!
<p>
As a slight asymmetry in the module diagrams, you find the following
modules:
<ul>
<li> <tt>Tense</tt>: defines the parameters of polarity, anteriority, and tense
<li> <tt>Tensed</tt>: defines how sentences use those parameters
<li> <tt>Untensed</tt>: makes sentences use the polarity parameter only
</ul>
The full resource API (<tt>Lang</tt>) uses <tt>Tensed</tt>, whereas the
restricted <tt>Test</tt> API uses <tt>Untensed</tt>.
<h3>Lexical modules</h3>
What is lexical and what is syntactic is not as clearcut in GF as in
some other grammar formalisms. Logically, however, lexical means
<tt>fun</tt> with no arguments. Linguistically, one may add to this
that the <tt>lin</tt> consists of only one token (or of a table whose values
are single tokens). Even in the restricted lexicon included in the resource
API, the latter rule is sometimes violated in some languages.
<p>
Another characterization of lexical is that lexical units can be added
almost <i>ad libitum</i>, and they cannot be defined in terms of already
given rules. The lexical modules of the resource API are thus more like
samples than complete lists. There are three such modules:
<ul>
<li> <tt>Structural</tt>: structural words (determiners, conjunctions,...)
<li> <tt>Basic</tt>: basic everyday content words (nouns, verbs,...)
<li> <tt>Lex</tt>: a very small sample of both structural and content words
</ul>
The module <tt>Structural</tt> aims for completeness, and is likely to
be extended in future releases of the resource. The module <tt>Basic</tt>
gives a "random" list of words, which enable interesting testing of syntax,
and also a check list for morphology, since those words are likely to include
most morphological patterns of the language.
<p>
The module <tt>Lex</tt> is used in <tt>Test</tt> instead of the two
larger modules. Its purpose is to provide a quick way to test the
syntactic structures of the phrase category modules without having to implement
the larger lexica.
<p>
In the case of <tt>Basic</tt> it may come out clearer than anywhere else
in the API that it is impossible to give exact translation equivalents in
different languages on the level of a resource grammar. In other words,
application grammars are likely to use the resource in different ways for
different languages.
<h2>Phases of the work</h2>
<h3>Putting up a directory</h3>
Unless you are writing an instance of a parametrized implementation
(Romance or Scandinavian), which will be covered later, the most
simple way is to follow roughly the following procedure. Assume you
are building a grammar for the Dutch language. Here are the first steps.
<ol>
<li> Create a sister directory for <tt>GF/lib/resource/english</tt>, named
<tt>dutch</tt>.
<pre>
cd GF/lib/resource/
mkdir dutch
cd dutch
</pre>
<li> Check out the <a href="http://www.w3.org/WAI/ER/IG/ert/iso639.htm">
ISO 639 3-letter language code</a> for Dutch: it is <tt>Dut</tt>.
<li> Copy the <tt>*Eng.gf</tt> files from <tt>english</tt> <tt>dutch</tt>,
and rename them:
<pre>
cp ../english/*Eng.gf .
rename -n 's/Eng/Dut/' *Eng.gf
</pre>
<li> Change the <tt>Eng</tt> module references to <tt>Dut</tt> references
in all files:
<pre>
sed -i 's/Eng/Dut/g' *Dut.gf
</pre>
<li> This may of course change unwanted occurrences of the
string <tt>Eng</tt> - verify this by
<pre>
grep Dut *.gf
</pre>
But you will have to make lots of manual changes in all files anyway!
<li> Comment out the contents of these files, except their headers and module
brackets. This will give you a set of templates out of which the grammar
will grow as you uncomment and modify the files rule by rule.
</ol>
<h3>The develop-test cycle</h3>
Now starts the real work. The order in which the <tt>Phrase</tt> modules
were introduced above is a natural order to proceed, even though not the
only one. So you will find yourseld iterating the following steps:
<ol>
<li> Select a phrase category module, e.g. <tt>NounDut</tt>, and uncomment one
linearization rule (for instance, <tt>DefSg</tt>, which is
not too complicated).
<li> Write down some Dutch examples of this rule, in this case translations
of "the dog", "the house", "the big house", etc.
<li> Think about the categories involved (<tt>CN, NP, N</tt>) and the
variations they have. Encode this in the lincats of <tt>CatDut</tt>.
You may have to define some new parameter types in <tt>ResDut</tt>.
<li> To be able to test the construction,
define some words you need to instantiate it
in <tt>LexDut</tt>. Again, it can be helpful to define some simple-minded
morphological paradigms in <tt>ResDut</tt>, e.g. corresponding to
<tt>ResEng.regN</tt>.
<li> Doing this, you may want to test the resource independently. Do this by
<pre>
i -retain ResDut
cc regN "huis"
</pre>
<li> Uncomment <tt>NounDut</tt> and <tt>LexDut</tt> in <tt>TestDut</tt>,
and compile <tt>TestDut</tt> in GF. Then test by parsing, linearization,
and random generation. In particular, linearization to a table should
be used so that you see all forms produced:
<pre>
gr -cat=NP -number=20 -tr | l -table
</pre>
<li> Spare some tree-linearization pairs for later regression testing.
You can do this way (!!to be completed)
</ol>
You are likely to run this cycle a few times for each linearization rule
you implement, and some hundreds of times altogether. There are 159
<tt>funs</tt> in <tt>Test</tt> (at the moment).
<p>
Of course, you don't need to complete one phrase category module before starting
with the next one. Actually, a suitable subset of <tt>Noun</tt>,
<tt>Verb</tt>, and <tt>Adjective</tt> will lead to a reasonable coverage
very soon, keep you motivated, and reveal errors.
<h3>Resource modules used</h3>
These modules will be written by you.
<ul>
<li> <tt>ResDut</tt>: parameter types and auxiliary operations
<li> <tt>MorphoDut</tt>: complete inflection engine; not needed for <tt>Test</tt>.
</ul>
These modules are language-independent and provided by the existing resource
package.
<ul>
<li> <tt>ParamX</tt>: parameter types used in many languages
<li> <tt>TenseX</tt>: implementation of the logical tense, anteriority,
and polarity parameters
<li> <tt>Coordination</tt>: operations to deal with lists and coordination
<li> <tt>Prelude</tt>: general-purpose operations on strings, records,
truth values, etc.
<li> <tt>Predefined</tt>: general-purpose operations with hard-coded definitions
</ul>
<h3>Morphology and lexicon</h3>
When the implementation of <tt>Test</tt> is complete, it is time to
work out the lexicon files. The underlying machinery is provided in
<tt>MorphoDut</tt>, which is, in effect, your linguistic theory of
Dutch morphology. It can contain very sophisticated and complicated
definitions, which are not necessarily suitable for actually building a
lexicon. For this purpose, you should write the module
<ul>
<li> <tt>ParadigmsDut</tt>: morphological paradigms for the lexicographer.
</ul>
This module provides high-level ways to define the linearization of
lexical items, of categories <tt>N, A, V</tt> and their complement-taking
variants.
<p>
For ease of use, the <tt>Paradigms</tt> modules follow a certain
naming convention. Thus they for each lexical category, such as <tt>N</tt>,
the functions
<ul>
<li> <tt>mkN</tt>, for worst-case construction of <tt>N</tt>. Its type signature
has the form
<pre>
mkN : Str -> ... -> Str -> P -> ... -> Q -> N
</pre>
with as many string and parameter arguments as can ever be needed to
construct an <tt>N</tt>.
<li> <tt>regN</tt>, for the most common cases, with just one string argument:
<pre>
regN : Str -> N
</pre>
<li> A language-dependent (small) set of functions to handle mild irregularities
and common exceptions.
</ul>
For the complement-taking variants, such as <tt>V2</tt>, we provide
<ul>
<li> <tt>mkV2</tt>, which takes a <tt>V</tt> and all necessary arguments, such
as case and preposition:
<pre>
mkV2 : V -> Case -> Str -> V2 ;
</pre>
<li> A language-dependent (small) set of functions to handle common special cases,
such as direct transitive verbs:
<pre>
dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
-- dirV2 v = mkV2 v accusative []
</pre>
</ul>
The golden rule for the design of paradigms is that
<ul>
<li> The user will only need function applications with constants and strings,
never any records or tables.
</ul>
The discipline of data abstraction moreover requires that the user of the resource
is not given access to parameter constructors, but only to constants that denote
them. This gives the resource grammarian the freedom to change the underlying
data representation if needed. It means that the <tt>ParadigmsDut</tt> module has
to define constants for those parameter types and constructors that
the application grammarian may need to use, e.g.
<pre>
oper
Case : Type ;
nominative, accusative, genitive : Case ;
</pre>
These constants are defined in terms of parameter types and constructors
in <tt>ResDut</tt> and <tt>MorphoDut</tt>, which modules are are not
accessible to the application grammarian.
<h3>Lock fields</h3>
An important difference between <tt>MorphoDut</tt> and
<tt>ParadigmsDut</tt> is that the former uses "raw" record types
as lincats, whereas the latter used category symbols defined in
<tt>CatDut</tt>. When these category symbols are used to denote
record types in a resource modules, such as <tt>ParadigmsDut</tt>,
a <b>lock field</b> is added to the record, so that categories
with the same implementation are not confused with each other.
(This is inspired by the <tt>newtype</tt> discipline in Haskell.)
For instance, the lincats of adverbs and conjunctions may be the same
in <tt>CatDut</tt>:
<pre>
lincat Adv = {s : Str} ;
lincat Conj = {s : Str} ;
</pre>
But when these category symbols are used to denote their linearization
types in resource module, these definitions are translated to
<pre>
oper Adv : Type = {s : Str ; lock_Adv : {}} ;
oper Conj : Type = {s : Str} ; lock_Conj : {}} ;
</pre>
In this way, the user of a resource grammar cannot confuse adverbs with
conjunctions. In other words, the lock fields force the type checker
to function as grammaticality checker.
<p>
When the resource grammar is <tt>open</tt>ed in an application grammar, the
lock fields are never seen (except possibly in type error messages),
and the application grammarian should never write them herself. If she
has to do this, it is a sign that the resource grammar is incomplete, and
the proper way to proceed is to fix the resource grammar.
<p>
The resource grammarian has to provide the dummy lock field values
in her hidden definitions of constants in <tt>Paradigms</tt>. For instance,
<pre>
mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
-- mkAdv s = {s = s ; lock_Adv = <>} ;
</pre>
<h3>Lexicon construction</h3>
The lexicon belonging to <tt>LangDut</tt> consists of two modules:
<ul>
<li> <tt>StructuralDut</tt>, structural words, built by directly using
<tt>MorphoDut</tt>.
<li> <tt>BasicDut</tt>, content words, built by using <tt>ParadigmsDut</tt>.
</ul>
The reason why <tt>MorphoDut</tt> has to be used in <tt>StructuralDut</tt>
is that <tt>ParadigmsDut</tt> does not contain constructors for closed
word classes such as pronouns and determiners. The reason why we
recommend <tt>ParadigmsDut</tt> for building <tt>BasicDut</tt> is that
the coverage of the paradigms gets thereby tested and that the
use of the paradigms in <tt>BasicDut</tt> gives a good set of examples for
those who want to build new lexica.
<h2>Inside phrase category modules</h2>
<h3>Noun</h3>
<h3>Verb</h3>
<h3>Adjective</h3>
<h2>Lexicon extension</h2>
<h3>The irregularity lexicon</h3>
It may be handy to provide a separate module of irregular
verbs and other words which are difficult for a lexicographer
to handle. There are usually a limited number of such words - a
few hundred perhaps. Building such a lexicon separately also
makes it less important to cover <i>everything</i> by the
worst-case paradigms (<tt>mkV</tt> etc).
<h3>Lexicon extraction from a word list</h3>
You can often find resources such as lists of
irregular verbs on the internet. For instance, the
<a href="http://www.dutchtrav.com/gram/irrverbs.html">
Dutch for Travelers</a> page gives a list of verbs in the
traditional tabular format, which begins as follows:
<pre>
begrijpen begrijp begreep begrepen to understand
bijten bijt beet gebeten to bite
binden bind bond gebonden to tie
breken breek brak gebroken to break
</pre>
All you have to do is to write a suitable verb paradigm
<pre>
irregV : Str -> Str -> Str -> Str -> V ;
</pre>
and a Perl or Python or Haskell script that transforms
the table to
<pre>
begrijpen_V = irregV "begrijpen" "begrijp" "begreep" "begrepen" ;
bijten_V = irregV "bijten" "bijt" "beet" "gebeten" ;
binden_V = irregV "binden" "bind" "bond" "gebonden" ;
</pre>
(You may want to use the English translation for some purpose, as well.)
<p>
When using ready-made word lists, you should think about
coyright issues. Ideally, all resource grammar material should
be provided under GNU General Public License.
<h3>Lexicon extraction from raw text data</h3>
This is a cheap technique to build a lexicon of thousands
of words, if text data is available in digital format.
See the <a href="http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~markus/FM/">
Functional Morphology</a> homepage for details.
<h3>Extending the resource grammar API</h3>
Sooner or later it will happen that the resource grammar API
does not suffice for all applications. A common reason is
that it does not include idiomatic expressions in a given language.
The solution then is in the first place to build language-specific
extension modules. This chapter will deal with this issue.
<h2>Writing an instance of parametrized resource grammar implementation</h2>
Above we have looked at how a resource implementation is built by
the copy and paste method (from English to Dutch), that is, formally
speaking, from scratch. A more elegant solution available for
families of languages such as Romance and Scandinavian is to
use parametrized modules. The advantages are
<ul>
<li> theoretical: linguistic generalizations and insights
<li> practical: maintainability improves with fewer components
</ul>
In this chapter, we will look at an example: adding Portuguese to
the Romance family.
<h2>Parametrizing a resource grammar implementation</h2>
This is the most demanding form of resource grammar writing.
We do <i>not</i> recommend the method of parametrizing from the
beginning: it is easier to have one language first implemented
in the conventional way and then add another language of the
same family by aprametrization. This means that the copy and
paste method is still used, but at this time the differences
are put into an <tt>interface</tt> module.
<p>
This chapter will work out an example of how an Estonian grammar
is constructed from the Finnish grammar through parametrization.
</body>
</html>

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The Official EU languages
The 20 official languages of the EU and their abbreviations are as follows:
Español ES Spanish
Dansk DA Danish
Deutsch DE German
Elinika EL Greek
English EN
Français FR French
Italiano IT Italian
Nederlands NL Dutch
Português PT Portuguese
Suomi FI Finnish
Svenska SV Swedish
?e?tina CS Czech
Eesti ET Estonian
Latviesu valoda LV Latvian
Lietuviu kalba LT Lithuanian
Magyar HU Hungarian
Malti MT Maltese
Polski PL Polish
Sloven?ina SK Slovak
Sloven??ina SL Slovene
http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/lang/languages/index_en.html
-----
http://www.w3.org/WAI/ER/IG/ert/iso639.htm
ar arabic
no norwegian
ru russian
--
ISO 639: 3-letter codes
abk ab Abkhazian
ace Achinese
ach Acoli
ada Adangme
aar aa Afar
afh Afrihili
afr af Afrikaans
afa Afro-Asiatic (Other)
aka Akan
akk Akkadian
alb/sqi sq Albanian
ale Aleut
alg Algonquian languages
tut Altaic (Other)
amh am Amharic
apa Apache languages
ara ar Arabic
arc Aramaic
arp Arapaho
arn Araucanian
arw Arawak
arm/hye hy Armenian
art Artificial (Other)
asm as Assamese
ath Athapascan languages
map Austronesian (Other)
ava Avaric
ave Avestan
awa Awadhi
aym ay Aymara
aze az Azerbaijani
nah Aztec
ban Balinese
bat Baltic (Other)
bal Baluchi
bam Bambara
bai Bamileke languages
bad Banda
bnt Bantu (Other)
bas Basa
bak ba Bashkir
baq/eus eu Basque
bej Beja
bem Bemba
ben bn Bengali
ber Berber (Other)
bho Bhojpuri
bih bh Bihari
bik Bikol
bin Bini
bis bi Bislama
bra Braj
bre be Breton
bug Buginese
bul bg Bulgarian
bua Buriat
bur/mya my Burmese
bel be Byelorussian
cad Caddo
car Carib
cat ca Catalan
cau Caucasian (Other)
ceb Cebuano
cel Celtic (Other)
cai Central American Indian (Other)
chg Chagatai
cha Chamorro
che Chechen
chr Cherokee
chy Cheyenne
chb Chibcha
chi/zho zh Chinese
chn Chinook jargon
cho Choctaw
chu Church Slavic
chv Chuvash
cop Coptic
cor Cornish
cos co Corsican
cre Cree
mus Creek
crp Creoles and Pidgins (Other)
cpe Creoles and Pidgins, English-based (Other)
cpf Creoles and Pidgins, French-based (Other)
cpp Creoles and Pidgins, Portuguese-based (Other)
cus Cushitic (Other)
hr Croatian
ces/cze cs Czech
dak Dakota
dan da Danish
del Delaware
din Dinka
div Divehi
doi Dogri
dra Dravidian (Other)
dua Duala
dut/nla nl Dutch
dum Dutch, Middle (ca. 1050-1350)
dyu Dyula
dzo dz Dzongkha
efi Efik
egy Egyptian (Ancient)
eka Ekajuk
elx Elamite
eng en English
enm English, Middle (ca. 1100-1500)
ang English, Old (ca. 450-1100)
esk Eskimo (Other)
epo eo Esperanto
est et Estonian
ewe Ewe
ewo Ewondo
fan Fang
fat Fanti
fao fo Faroese
fij fj Fijian
fin fi Finnish
fiu Finno-Ugrian (Other)
fon Fon
fra/fre fr French
frm French, Middle (ca. 1400-1600)
fro French, Old (842- ca. 1400)
fry fy Frisian
ful Fulah
gaa Ga
gae/gdh Gaelic (Scots)
glg gl Gallegan
lug Ganda
gay Gayo
gez Geez
geo/kat ka Georgian
deu/ger de German
gmh German, Middle High (ca. 1050-1500)
goh German, Old High (ca. 750-1050)
gem Germanic (Other)
gil Gilbertese
gon Gondi
got Gothic
grb Grebo
grc Greek, Ancient (to 1453)
ell/gre el Greek, Modern (1453-)
kal kl Greenlandic
grn gn Guarani
guj gu Gujarati
hai Haida
hau ha Hausa
haw Hawaiian
heb he Hebrew
her Herero
hil Hiligaynon
him Himachali
hin hi Hindi
hmo Hiri Motu
hun hu Hungarian
hup Hupa
iba Iban
ice/isl is Icelandic
ibo Igbo
ijo Ijo
ilo Iloko
inc Indic (Other)
ine Indo-European (Other)
ind id Indonesian
ina ia Interlingua (International Auxiliary language Association)
ine - Interlingue
iku iu Inuktitut
ipk ik Inupiak
ira Iranian (Other)
gai/iri ga Irish
sga Irish, Old (to 900)
mga Irish, Middle (900 - 1200)
iro Iroquoian languages
ita it Italian
jpn ja Japanese
jav/jaw jv/jw Javanese
jrb Judeo-Arabic
jpr Judeo-Persian
kab Kabyle
kac Kachin
kam Kamba
kan kn Kannada
kau Kanuri
kaa Kara-Kalpak
kar Karen
kas ks Kashmiri
kaw Kawi
kaz kk Kazakh
kha Khasi
khm km Khmer
khi Khoisan (Other)
kho Khotanese
kik Kikuyu
kin rw Kinyarwanda
kir ky Kirghiz
kom Komi
kon Kongo
kok Konkani
kor ko Korean
kpe Kpelle
kro Kru
kua Kuanyama
kum Kumyk
kur ku Kurdish
kru Kurukh
kus Kusaie
kut Kutenai
lad Ladino
lah Lahnda
lam Lamba
oci oc Langue d'Oc (post 1500)
lao lo Lao
lat la Latin
lav lv Latvian
ltz Letzeburgesch
lez Lezghian
lin ln Lingala
lit lt Lithuanian
loz Lozi
lub Luba-Katanga
lui Luiseno
lun Lunda
luo Luo (Kenya and Tanzania)
mac/mak mk Macedonian
mad Madurese
mag Magahi
mai Maithili
mak Makasar
mlg mg Malagasy
may/msa ms Malay
mal Malayalam
mlt ml Maltese
man Mandingo
mni Manipuri
mno Manobo languages
max Manx
mao/mri mi Maori
mar mr Marathi
chm Mari
mah Marshall
mwr Marwari
mas Masai
myn Mayan languages
men Mende
mic Micmac
min Minangkabau
mis Miscellaneous (Other)
moh Mohawk
mol mo Moldavian
mkh Mon-Kmer (Other)
lol Mongo
mon mn Mongolian
mos Mossi
mul Multiple languages
mun Munda languages
nau na Nauru
nav Navajo
nde Ndebele, North
nbl Ndebele, South
ndo Ndongo
nep ne Nepali
new Newari
nic Niger-Kordofanian (Other)
ssa Nilo-Saharan (Other)
niu Niuean
non Norse, Old
nai North American Indian (Other)
nor no Norwegian
nno Norwegian (Nynorsk)
nub Nubian languages
nym Nyamwezi
nya Nyanja
nyn Nyankole
nyo Nyoro
nzi Nzima
oji Ojibwa
ori or Oriya
orm om Oromo
osa Osage
oss Ossetic
oto Otomian languages
pal Pahlavi
pau Palauan
pli Pali
pam Pampanga
pag Pangasinan
pan pa Panjabi
pap Papiamento
paa Papuan-Australian (Other)
fas/per fa Persian
peo Persian, Old (ca 600 - 400 B.C.)
phn Phoenician
pol pl Polish
pon Ponape
por pt Portuguese
pra Prakrit languages
pro Provencal, Old (to 1500)
pus ps Pushto
que qu Quechua
roh rm Rhaeto-Romance
raj Rajasthani
rar Rarotongan
roa Romance (Other)
ron/rum ro Romanian
rom Romany
run rn Rundi
rus ru Russian
sal Salishan languages
sam Samaritan Aramaic
smi Sami languages
smo sm Samoan
sad Sandawe
sag sg Sango
san sa Sanskrit
srd Sardinian
sco Scots
sel Selkup
sem Semitic (Other)
sr Serbian
scr sh Serbo-Croatian
srr Serer
shn Shan
sna sn Shona
sid Sidamo
bla Siksika
snd sd Sindhi
sin si Singhalese
sit - Sino-Tibetan (Other)
sio Siouan languages
sla Slavic (Other)
ssw ss Siswant
slk/slo sk Slovak
slv sl Slovenian
sog Sogdian
som so Somali
son Songhai
wen Sorbian languages
nso Sotho, Northern
sot st Sotho, Southern
sai South American Indian (Other)
esl/spa es Spanish
suk Sukuma
sux Sumerian
sun su Sudanese
sus Susu
swa sw Swahili
ssw Swazi
sve/swe sv Swedish
syr Syriac
tgl tl Tagalog
tah Tahitian
tgk tg Tajik
tmh Tamashek
tam ta Tamil
tat tt Tatar
tel te Telugu
ter Tereno
tha th Thai
bod/tib bo Tibetan
tig Tigre
tir ti Tigrinya
tem Timne
tiv Tivi
tli Tlingit
tog to Tonga (Nyasa)
ton Tonga (Tonga Islands)
tru Truk
tsi Tsimshian
tso ts Tsonga
tsn tn Tswana
tum Tumbuka
tur tr Turkish
ota Turkish, Ottoman (1500 - 1928)
tuk tk Turkmen
tyv Tuvinian
twi tw Twi
uga Ugaritic
uig ug Uighur
ukr uk Ukrainian
umb Umbundu
und Undetermined
urd ur Urdu
uzb uz Uzbek
vai Vai
ven Venda
vie vi Vietnamese
vol vo Volapük
vot Votic
wak Wakashan languages
wal Walamo
war Waray
was Washo
cym/wel cy Welsh
wol wo Wolof
xho xh Xhosa
sah Yakut
yao Yao
yap Yap
yid yi Yiddish
yor yo Yoruba
zap Zapotec
zen Zenaga
zha za Zhuang
zul zu Zulu
zun Zuni
ISO 639: 2-letter codes
AA "Afar"
AB "Abkhazian"
AF "Afrikaans"
AM "Amharic"
AR "Arabic"
AS "Assamese"
AY "Aymara"
AZ "Azerbaijani"
BA "Bashkir"
BE "Byelorussian"
BG "Bulgarian"
BH "Bihari"
BI "Bislama"
BN "Bengali" "Bangla"
BO "Tibetan"
BR "Breton"
CA "Catalan"
CO "Corsican"
CS "Czech"
CY "Welsh"
DA "Danish"
DE "German"
DZ "Bhutani"
EL "Greek"
EN "English" "American"
EO "Esperanto"
ES "Spanish"
ET "Estonian"
EU "Basque"
FA "Persian"
FI "Finnish"
FJ "Fiji"
FO "Faeroese"
FR "French"
FY "Frisian"
GA "Irish"
GD "Gaelic" "Scots Gaelic"
GL "Galician"
GN "Guarani"
GU "Gujarati"
HA "Hausa"
HI "Hindi"
HR "Croatian"
HU "Hungarian"
HY "Armenian"
IA "Interlingua"
IE "Interlingue"
IK "Inupiak"
IN "Indonesian"
IS "Icelandic"
IT "Italian"
IW "Hebrew"
JA "Japanese"
JI "Yiddish"
JW "Javanese"
KA "Georgian"
KK "Kazakh"
KL "Greenlandic"
KM "Cambodian"
KN "Kannada"
KO "Korean"
KS "Kashmiri"
KU "Kurdish"
KY "Kirghiz"
LA "Latin"
LN "Lingala"
LO "Laothian"
LT "Lithuanian"
LV "Latvian" "Lettish"
MG "Malagasy"
MI "Maori"
MK "Macedonian"
ML "Malayalam"
MN "Mongolian"
MO "Moldavian"
MR "Marathi"
MS "Malay"
MT "Maltese"
MY "Burmese"
NA "Nauru"
NE "Nepali"
NL "Dutch"
NO "Norwegian"
OC "Occitan"
OM "Oromo" "Afan"
OR "Oriya"
PA "Punjabi"
PL "Polish"
PS "Pashto" "Pushto"
PT "Portuguese"
QU "Quechua"
RM "Rhaeto-Romance"
RN "Kirundi"
RO "Romanian"
RU "Russian"
RW "Kinyarwanda"
SA "Sanskrit"
SD "Sindhi"
SG "Sangro"
SH "Serbo-Croatian"
SI "Singhalese"
SK "Slovak"
SL "Slovenian"
SM "Samoan"
SN "Shona"
SO "Somali"
SQ "Albanian"
SR "Serbian"
SS "Siswati"
ST "Sesotho"
SU "Sudanese"
SV "Swedish"
SW "Swahili"
TA "Tamil"
TE "Tegulu"
TG "Tajik"
TH "Thai"
TI "Tigrinya"
TK "Turkmen"
TL "Tagalog"
TN "Setswana"
TO "Tonga"
TR "Turkish"
TS "Tsonga"
TT "Tatar"
TW "Twi"
UK "Ukrainian"
UR "Urdu"
UZ "Uzbek"
VI "Vietnamese"
VO "Volapuk"
WO "Wolof"
XH "Xhosa"
YO "Yoruba"
ZH "Chinese"
ZU "Zulu"