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API module titles, resource.txt corrections

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aarne
2006-06-14 21:16:06 +00:00
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doc/final-resource.tex
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@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper]{article} \documentclass[11pt,a4paper]{article}
\usepackage{amsfonts,graphicx} \usepackage{amsfonts,graphicx}
\usepackage{isolatin1}
\usepackage[pdfstartview=FitH,urlcolor=blue,colorlinks=true,bookmarks=true]{hyperref} \usepackage[pdfstartview=FitH,urlcolor=blue,colorlinks=true,bookmarks=true]{hyperref}
%%\usepackage[utf8x]{inputenc}
\pagestyle{plain} % do page numbering ('empty' turns off) \pagestyle{plain} % do page numbering ('empty' turns off)
\frenchspacing % no aditional spaces after periods \frenchspacing % no aditional spaces after periods
\setlength{\parskip}{8pt}\parindent=0pt % no paragraph indentation \setlength{\parskip}{8pt}\parindent=0pt % no paragraph indentation
@@ -28,29 +30,34 @@ in order to use the library.
How to write one's own resource grammar (i.e. to implement the API for How to write one's own resource grammar (i.e. to implement the API for
a new language), is covered by a separate Resource-HOWTO document. a new language), is covered by a separate Resource-HOWTO document.
\section{Motivation} \subsection*{Motivation}
The GF Resource Grammar Library contains grammar rules for The GF Resource Grammar Library contains grammar rules for
10 languages (some more are under construction). Its purpose 10 languages (some more are under construction). Its purpose
is to make these rules available for application programmers, is to make these rules available for application programmers,
who can thereby concentrate on the semantic and stylistic who can thereby concentrate on the semantic and stylistic
aspects of their grammars, without having to think about aspects of their grammars, without having to think about
grammaticality. The targeted level of application grammarians grammaticality. The targeted level of application grammarians
is skilled programmer without knowledge linguistics, but with is that of a skilled programmer with
a good knowledge of the target languages. Such a combination of a practical knowledge of the target languages, but without
theoretical knowledge about their grammars.
Such a combination of
skills is typical of programmers who want to localize skills is typical of programmers who want to localize
software to new languages. software to new languages.
The current resource languages are The current resource languages are
-\texttt{Dan}ish
-\texttt{Eng}lish \begin{itemize}
-\texttt{Fin}nish \item \texttt{Dan}ish
-\texttt{Fre}nch \item \texttt{Eng}lish
-\texttt{Ger}man \item \texttt{Fin}nish
-\texttt{Ita}lian \item \texttt{Fre}nch
-\texttt{Nor}wegian \item \texttt{Ger}man
-\texttt{Rus}sian \item \texttt{Ita}lian
-\texttt{Spa}nish \item \texttt{Nor}wegian
-\texttt{Swe}dish \item \texttt{Rus}sian
\item \texttt{Spa}nish
\item \texttt{Swe}dish
\end{itemize}
The first three letters (\texttt{Dan} etc) are used in grammar module names. The first three letters (\texttt{Dan} etc) are used in grammar module names.
@@ -83,7 +90,7 @@ variation is taken care of by the resource grammar function
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
fun AdjCN : AP -> CN -> CN fun AdjCN : AP -> CN -> CN
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
and the resource grammar implementation of the rule adding properties The resource grammar implementation of the rule adding properties
to kinds is to kinds is
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
@@ -95,8 +102,8 @@ given that
lincat Prop = AP lincat Prop = AP
lincat Kind = CN lincat Kind = CN
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
The resource library API is devided into language-specific and language-independet The resource library API is devided into language-specific
parts. To put it roughly, and language-independet parts. To put it roughly,
\begin{itemize} \begin{itemize}
\item the lexicon API is language-specific \item the lexicon API is language-specific
@@ -111,9 +118,10 @@ pick a different linearization of \texttt{Song},
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
But to linearize \texttt{PropKind}, we can use the very same rule as in German. But to linearize \texttt{PropKind}, we can use the very same rule as in German.
The resource function \texttt{AdjCN} has different implementations in the two The resource function \texttt{AdjCN} has different implementations in the two
languages, but the application programmer need not care about the difference. languages (e.g. a different word order in French),
but the application programmer need not care about the difference.
\subsection{A complete example} \subsubsection*{A complete example}
To summarize the example, and also give a template for a programmer to work on, To summarize the example, and also give a template for a programmer to work on,
here is the complete implementation of a small system with songs and properties. here is the complete implementation of a small system with songs and properties.
The abstract syntax defines a "domain ontology": The abstract syntax defines a "domain ontology":
@@ -129,7 +137,8 @@ The abstract syntax defines a "domain ontology":
American : Property ; American : Property ;
} }
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
The concrete syntax is defined independently of language, by opening The concrete syntax is defined by a functor (parametrize module),
independently of language, by opening
two interfaces: the resource \texttt{Grammar} and an application lexicon. two interfaces: the resource \texttt{Grammar} and an application lexicon.
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
@@ -153,14 +162,14 @@ the resource category system \texttt{Cat}.
american_A : A ; american_A : A ;
} }
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
Each language has its own concrete syntax, which opens the inflectional paradigms Each language has its own concrete syntax, which opens the
module for that language: inflectional paradigms module for that language:
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
concrete MusicLexGer of MusicLex = CatGer ** open ParadigmsGer in { concrete MusicLexGer of MusicLex = CatGer ** open ParadigmsGer in {
lin lin
song_N = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter ; song_N = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter ;
american_A = regA "amerikanisch" ; american_A = regA "Amerikanisch" ;
} }
concrete MusicLexFre of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsFre in { concrete MusicLexFre of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsFre in {
@@ -169,8 +178,8 @@ module for that language:
american_A = regA "américain" ; american_A = regA "américain" ;
} }
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
The top-level \texttt{Music} grammars are obtained by instantiating the two interfaces The top-level \texttt{Music} grammars are obtained by
of \texttt{MusicI}: instantiating the two interfaces of \texttt{MusicI}:
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
concrete MusicGer of Music = MusicI with concrete MusicGer of Music = MusicI with
@@ -189,8 +198,10 @@ Both of these files can use the same \texttt{path}, defined as
The \texttt{present} category contains the compiled resources, restricted to The \texttt{present} category contains the compiled resources, restricted to
present tense; \texttt{alltenses} has the full resources. present tense; \texttt{alltenses} has the full resources.
To localize the music player system to a new language, all that is needed is two modules, To localize the music player system to a new language,
one implementing \texttt{MusicLex} and the other instantiating \texttt{Music}. The latter is all that is needed is two modules,
one implementing \texttt{MusicLex} and the other
instantiating \texttt{Music}. The latter is
completely trivial, whereas the former one involves the choice of correct completely trivial, whereas the former one involves the choice of correct
vocabulary and inflectional paradigms. For instance, Finnish is added as follows: vocabulary and inflectional paradigms. For instance, Finnish is added as follows:
@@ -238,10 +249,10 @@ gives its own definition of this function:
} }
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
\subsection{Parsing with resource grammars?} \subsubsection*{Parsing with resource grammars?}
The intended use of the resource grammar is as a library for writing The intended use of the resource grammar is as a library for writing
application grammars. It is not designed for e.g. parsing newspaper text. There application grammars. It is not designed for parsing e.g. newspaper text. There
are several reasons why this is not so practical: are several reasons why this is not practical:
\begin{itemize} \begin{itemize}
\item Efficiency: the resource grammar uses complex data structures, in \item Efficiency: the resource grammar uses complex data structures, in
@@ -265,15 +276,16 @@ details such as inflection, agreement, and word order.
It is for the same reasons that resource grammars are not adequate for translation. It is for the same reasons that resource grammars are not adequate for translation.
That the syntax API is implemented for different languages of course makes That the syntax API is implemented for different languages of course makes
it possible to translate via it - but there is no guarantee of translation it possible to translate via it - but there is no guarantee of translation
equivalence. Of course, the use of parametrized implementations such as \texttt{MusicI} equivalence. Of course, the use of functor implementations such as \texttt{MusicI}
above only extends to those cases where the syntax API does give translation above only extends to those cases where the syntax API does give translation
equivalence - but this must be seen as a limiting case, and real applications equivalence - but this must be seen as a limiting case, and bigger applications
will often use only restricted inheritance of \texttt{MusicI}. will often use only restricted inheritance of \texttt{MusicI}.
\section{To find rules in the resource grammar library} \subsection*{To find rules in the resource grammar library}
\subsection{Inflection paradigms} \subsubsection*{Inflection paradigms}
Inflection paradigms are defined separately for each language \textit{L} Inflection paradigms are defined separately for each language \textit{L}
in the module \texttt{Paradigms}\textit{L}. To test them, the command \texttt{cc} (= \texttt{compute\_concrete}) in the module \texttt{Paradigms}\textit{L}. To test them, the command
\texttt{cc} (= \texttt{compute\_concrete})
can be used: can be used:
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
@@ -310,15 +322,16 @@ For the sake of convenience, every language implements these four paradigms:
It is often possible to initialize a lexicon by just using these functions, It is often possible to initialize a lexicon by just using these functions,
and later revise it by using the more involved paradigms. For instance, in and later revise it by using the more involved paradigms. For instance, in
German we cannot use \texttt{regN "Lied"} for \texttt{Song}, because the result would be a German we cannot use \texttt{regN "Lied"} for \texttt{Song}, because the result would be a
Masculine noun with the plural form \texttt{"Liede"}. The individual \texttt{Paradigms} modules Masculine noun with the plural form \texttt{"Liede"}.
The individual \texttt{Paradigms} modules
tell what cases are covered by the regular heuristics. tell what cases are covered by the regular heuristics.
As a limiting case, one could even initialize the lexicon for a new language As a limiting case, one could even initialize the lexicon for a new language
by copying the English (or some other already existing) lexicon. This will by copying the English (or some other already existing) lexicon. This would
produce language with correct grammar but with content words directly borrowed from produce language with correct grammar but with content words directly borrowed from
English. English - maybe not so strange in certain technical domains.
\subsection{Syntax rules} \subsubsection*{Syntax rules}
Syntax rules should be looked for in the abstract modules defining the Syntax rules should be looked for in the abstract modules defining the
API. There are around 10 such modules, each defining constructors for API. There are around 10 such modules, each defining constructors for
a group of one or more related categories. For instance, the module a group of one or more related categories. For instance, the module
@@ -326,14 +339,16 @@ a group of one or more related categories. For instance, the module
Thus the proper place to find out how nouns are modified with adjectives Thus the proper place to find out how nouns are modified with adjectives
is \texttt{Noun}, because the result of the construction is again a common noun. is \texttt{Noun}, because the result of the construction is again a common noun.
Browsing the libraries is helped by the gfdoc-generated HTML pages. Browsing the libraries is helped by the gfdoc-generated HTML pages,
whose LaTeX versions are included in the present document.
However, this is still not easy, and the most efficient way is However, this is still not easy, and the most efficient way is
probably to use the parser. probably to use the parser.
Even though parsing is not an intended end-user application Even though parsing is not an intended end-user application
of resource grammars, it is a useful technique for application grammarians of resource grammars, it is a useful technique for application grammarians
to browse the library. To find out what resource function does some to browse the library. To find out which resource function implements
particular job, you can just parse a string that exemplifies this job. For a particular structure, one can just parse a string that exemplifies this
instance, to find out how sentences are built using transitive verbs, write structure. For instance, to find out how sentences are built using
transitive verbs, write
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
> i english/LangEng.gf > i english/LangEng.gf
@@ -369,7 +384,7 @@ This can be built by parsing "I have beer" in LanEng and then writing
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
which uses ParadigmsIta.regGenN. which uses ParadigmsIta.regGenN.
\subsection{Example-based grammar writing} \subsubsection*{Example-based grammar writing}
The technique of parsing with the resource grammar can be used in GF source files, The technique of parsing with the resource grammar can be used in GF source files,
endowed with the suffix \texttt{.gfe} ("GF examples"). The suffix tells GF to preprocess endowed with the suffix \texttt{.gfe} ("GF examples"). The suffix tells GF to preprocess
the file by replacing all expressions of the form the file by replacing all expressions of the form
@@ -402,8 +417,8 @@ However, the technique of example-based grammar writing has some limitations:
it may not be the intended one. The other parses are shown in a comment, from it may not be the intended one. The other parses are shown in a comment, from
where they must/can be picked manually. where they must/can be picked manually.
\item Lexicality. The arguments of a function must be atomic identifiers, and are thus \item Lexicality. The arguments of a function must be atomic identifiers, and are thus
not available for categories that have no lexical items. For instance, the \texttt{PropKind} not available for categories that have no lexical items.
rule above gives the result For instance, the \texttt{PropKind} rule above gives the result
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
lin lin
PropKind car_N old_A = AdjCN (UseN car_N) (PositA old_A) ; PropKind car_N old_A = AdjCN (UseN car_N) (PositA old_A) ;
@@ -418,9 +433,10 @@ all those categories that can be used as arguments, for instance,
and then use this lexicon instead of the standard one included in \texttt{Lang}. and then use this lexicon instead of the standard one included in \texttt{Lang}.
\end{itemize} \end{itemize}
\subsection{Special-purpose APIs} \subsubsection*{Special-purpose APIs}
To give an analogy with a well-known type setting program, GF can be compared To give an analogy with the well-known type setting software, GF can be compared
with TeX and the resource grammar library with LaTeX. As TeX frees the author with TeX and the resource grammar library with LaTeX.
Just like TeX frees the author
from thinking about low-level problems of page layout, so GF frees the grammarian from thinking about low-level problems of page layout, so GF frees the grammarian
from writing parsing and generation algorithms. But quite a lot of knowledge of from writing parsing and generation algorithms. But quite a lot of knowledge of
\textit{how} to write grammars is still needed, and the resource grammar library helps \textit{how} to write grammars is still needed, and the resource grammar library helps
@@ -457,15 +473,16 @@ The implementation of this module is the functor \texttt{PredicationI}:
Of course, \texttt{Predication} can be opened together with \texttt{Grammar}, but using Of course, \texttt{Predication} can be opened together with \texttt{Grammar}, but using
the resulting grammar for parsing can be frustrating, since having both the resulting grammar for parsing can be frustrating, since having both
ways of building clauses simultaneously available will produce spurious ways of building clauses simultaneously available will produce spurious
ambiguities. Using \texttt{Predication} without \texttt{Verb} for parsing is a better idea, ambiguities. But using just \texttt{Predication} without \texttt{Verb}
since parsing is also made more efficient without rules for the \texttt{VP} category. for parsing is a good idea,
since parsing is more efficient without rules producing verb phrases.
The use of special-purpose APIs is to some extent just an alternative The use of special-purpose APIs is to some extent just an alternative
to grammar writing by parsing, and its importance may decrease as parsing to grammar writing by parsing, and its importance may decrease as parsing
with resource grammars gets more efficient. with resource grammars becomes more practical.
\section{Overview of syntactic structures} \subsection*{Overview of syntactic structures}
\subsection{Texts. phrases, and utterances} \subsubsection*{Texts. phrases, and utterances}
The outermost linguistic structure is \texttt{Text}. \texttt{Text}s are composed The outermost linguistic structure is \texttt{Text}. \texttt{Text}s are composed
from Phrases (\texttt{Phr}) followed by punctuation marks - either of ".", "?" or from Phrases (\texttt{Phr}) followed by punctuation marks - either of ".", "?" or
"!" (with their proper variants in Spanish and Arabic). Here is an "!" (with their proper variants in Spanish and Arabic). Here is an
@@ -502,7 +519,7 @@ What is the difference between Phrase and Utterance? Just technical:
a Phrase is an Utterance with an optional leading conjunction ("but") a Phrase is an Utterance with an optional leading conjunction ("but")
and an optional tailing vocative ("John", "please"). and an optional tailing vocative ("John", "please").
\subsection{Sentences and clauses} \subsubsection*{Sentences and clauses}
The richest of the categories below Utterance is \texttt{S}, Sentence. A Sentence The richest of the categories below Utterance is \texttt{S}, Sentence. A Sentence
is formed from a Clause (\texttt{Cl}), by fixing its Tense, Anteriority, and Polarity. is formed from a Clause (\texttt{Cl}), by fixing its Tense, Anteriority, and Polarity.
The difference between Sentence and Clause is thus also rather technical. The difference between Sentence and Clause is thus also rather technical.
@@ -570,13 +587,15 @@ many constructors:
ComplV2 love_V2 this_NP John loves this. ComplV2 love_V2 this_NP John loves this.
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
\subsection{Parts of sentences} \subsubsection*{Parts of sentences}
The linguistic phenomena mostly discussed in both traditional grammars and modern The linguistic phenomena mostly discussed in both traditional grammars and modern
syntax belong to the level of Clauses, that is, lines 9-13, and occasionally syntax belong to the level of Clauses, that is, lines 9-13, and occasionally
to Sentences, lines 5-13. At this level, the major categories are to Sentences, lines 5-13. At this level, the major categories are
\texttt{NP} (Noun Phrase) and \texttt{VP} (Verb Phrase). A Clause typically consists of just an \texttt{NP} (Noun Phrase) and \texttt{VP} (Verb Phrase). A Clause typically
\texttt{NP} and a \texttt{VP}. The internal structure of both \texttt{NP} and \texttt{VP} can be very complex, consists of just an \texttt{NP} and a \texttt{VP}.
and these categories are mutually recursive: not only can a \texttt{VP} contain an \texttt{NP}, The internal structure of both \texttt{NP} and \texttt{VP} can be very complex,
and these categories are mutually recursive: not only can a \texttt{VP}
contain an \texttt{NP},
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
[VP loves [NP Mary]] [VP loves [NP Mary]]
@@ -612,7 +631,8 @@ The most frequent ways are
\end{itemize} \end{itemize}
\textbf{Verb}. \textbf{Verb}.
How to construct VPs. The main mechanism is verbs with their arguments, for instance, How to construct VPs. The main mechanism is verbs with their arguments,
for instance,
\begin{itemize} \begin{itemize}
\item one-place verbs: "walks" \item one-place verbs: "walks"
@@ -645,10 +665,12 @@ How to construct \texttt{Adv}s. The main ways are
\begin{itemize} \begin{itemize}
\item from adjectives: "slowly" \item from adjectives: "slowly"
\item as prepositional phrases: "in the car"
\end{itemize} \end{itemize}
\subsection{Modules and their names} \subsubsection*{Modules and their names}
The resource modules are named after the kind of phrases that are constructed in them, The resource modules are named after the kind of
phrases that are constructed in them,
and they can be roughly classified by the "level" or "size" of expressions that are and they can be roughly classified by the "level" or "size" of expressions that are
formed in them: formed in them:
@@ -663,7 +685,8 @@ Because of mutual recursion such as in embedded sentences, this classification i
not a complete order. However, no mutual dependence is needed between the not a complete order. However, no mutual dependence is needed between the
modules in a formal sense - they can all be compiled separately. This is due modules in a formal sense - they can all be compiled separately. This is due
to the module \texttt{Cat}, which defines the type system common to the other modules. to the module \texttt{Cat}, which defines the type system common to the other modules.
For instance, the types \texttt{NP} and \texttt{VP} are defined in \texttt{Cat}, and the module \texttt{Verb} only For instance, the types \texttt{NP} and \texttt{VP} are defined in \texttt{Cat},
and the module \texttt{Verb} only
needs to know what is given in \texttt{Cat}, not what is given in \texttt{Noun}. To implement needs to know what is given in \texttt{Cat}, not what is given in \texttt{Noun}. To implement
a rule such as a rule such as
@@ -683,7 +706,7 @@ category-specific modules is as follows:
abstract Verb = Cat ** {...} abstract Verb = Cat ** {...}
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
\subsection{Top-level grammar and lexicon} \subsubsection*{Top-level grammar and lexicon}
The module \texttt{Grammar} collects all the category-specific modules into The module \texttt{Grammar} collects all the category-specific modules into
a complete grammar: a complete grammar:
@@ -698,7 +721,8 @@ The module \texttt{Idiom} is a collection of idiomatic structures whose
implementation is very language-dependent. An example is existential implementation is very language-dependent. An example is existential
structures ("there is", "es gibt", "il y a", etc). structures ("there is", "es gibt", "il y a", etc).
The module \texttt{Lang} combines \texttt{Grammar} with a \texttt{Lexicon} of ca. 350 content words: The module \texttt{Lang} combines \texttt{Grammar} with a \texttt{Lexicon} of
ca. 350 content words:
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
abstract Lang = Grammar, Lexicon abstract Lang = Grammar, Lexicon
@@ -709,7 +733,7 @@ help testing the resource library. It does not seem possible to maintain
a general-purpose multilingual lexicon, and this is the form that the module a general-purpose multilingual lexicon, and this is the form that the module
\texttt{Lexicon} has. \texttt{Lexicon} has.
\subsection{Language-specific syntactic structures} \subsubsection*{Language-specific syntactic structures}
The API collected in \texttt{Grammar} has been designed to be implementable for The API collected in \texttt{Grammar} has been designed to be implementable for
all languages in the resource package. It does contain some rules that all languages in the resource package. It does contain some rules that
are strange or superfluous in some languages; for instance, the distinction are strange or superfluous in some languages; for instance, the distinction
@@ -725,19 +749,23 @@ rules. The top level of each languages looks as follows (with English as example
abstract English = Grammar, ExtraEngAbs, DictEngAbs abstract English = Grammar, ExtraEngAbs, DictEngAbs
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
where \texttt{ExtraEngAbs} is a collection of syntactic structures specific to English, where \texttt{ExtraEngAbs} is a collection of syntactic structures specific to English,
and \texttt{DictEngAbs} is an English dictionary (at the moment, it consists of \texttt{IrregEngAbs}, and \texttt{DictEngAbs} is an English dictionary
(at the moment, it consists of \texttt{IrregEngAbs},
the irregular verbs of English). Each of these language-specific grammars has the irregular verbs of English). Each of these language-specific grammars has
the potential to grow into a full-scale grammar of the language. These grammar the potential to grow into a full-scale grammar of the language. These grammar
can also be used as libraries, but the possibility of using functors is lost. can also be used as libraries, but the possibility of using functors is lost.
To give a better overview of language-specific structures, modules like \texttt{ExtraEngAbs} To give a better overview of language-specific structures,
are built from a language-independent module \texttt{ExtraAbs} by restricted inheritance: modules like \texttt{ExtraEngAbs}
are built from a language-independent module \texttt{ExtraAbs}
by restricted inheritance:
\begin{verbatim} \begin{verbatim}
abstract ExtraEngAbs = Extra [f,g,...] abstract ExtraEngAbs = Extra [f,g,...]
\end{verbatim} \end{verbatim}
Thus any category and function in \texttt{Extra} may be shared by a subset of all Thus any category and function in \texttt{Extra} may be shared by a subset of all
languages. One can see this set-up as a matrix, which tells what \texttt{Extra} structures languages. One can see this set-up as a matrix, which tells
what \texttt{Extra} structures
are implemented in what languages. For the common API in \texttt{Grammar}, the matrix are implemented in what languages. For the common API in \texttt{Grammar}, the matrix
is filled with 1's (everything is implemented in every language). is filled with 1's (everything is implemented in every language).

134
doc/resource.txt
View File

@@ -27,27 +27,28 @@ is to make these rules available for application programmers,
who can thereby concentrate on the semantic and stylistic who can thereby concentrate on the semantic and stylistic
aspects of their grammars, without having to think about aspects of their grammars, without having to think about
grammaticality. The targeted level of application grammarians grammaticality. The targeted level of application grammarians
is skilled programmer without knowledge linguistics, but with is that of a skilled programmer with
a good knowledge of the target languages. Such a combination of a practical knowledge of the target languages, but without
theoretical knowledge about their grammars.
Such a combination of
skills is typical of programmers who want to localize skills is typical of programmers who want to localize
software to new languages. software to new languages.
The current resource languages are The current resource languages are
-``Dan``ish - ``Dan``ish
-``Eng``lish - ``Eng``lish
-``Fin``nish - ``Fin``nish
-``Fre``nch - ``Fre``nch
-``Ger``man - ``Ger``man
-``Ita``lian - ``Ita``lian
-``Nor``wegian - ``Nor``wegian
-``Rus``sian - ``Rus``sian
-``Spa``nish - ``Spa``nish
-``Swe``dish - ``Swe``dish
The first three letters (``Dan`` etc) are used in grammar module names. The first three letters (``Dan`` etc) are used in grammar module names.
To give an example application, consider To give an example application, consider
music playing devices. In the application, music playing devices. In the application,
we may have a semantical category ``Kind``, examples we may have a semantical category ``Kind``, examples
@@ -75,7 +76,7 @@ variation is taken care of by the resource grammar function
``` ```
fun AdjCN : AP -> CN -> CN fun AdjCN : AP -> CN -> CN
``` ```
and the resource grammar implementation of the rule adding properties The resource grammar implementation of the rule adding properties
to kinds is to kinds is
``` ```
lin PropKind kind prop = AdjCN prop kind lin PropKind kind prop = AdjCN prop kind
@@ -85,8 +86,8 @@ given that
lincat Prop = AP lincat Prop = AP
lincat Kind = CN lincat Kind = CN
``` ```
The resource library API is devided into language-specific and language-independet The resource library API is devided into language-specific
parts. To put it roughly, and language-independet parts. To put it roughly,
- the lexicon API is language-specific - the lexicon API is language-specific
- the syntax API is language-independent - the syntax API is language-independent
@@ -98,7 +99,8 @@ pick a different linearization of ``Song``,
``` ```
But to linearize ``PropKind``, we can use the very same rule as in German. But to linearize ``PropKind``, we can use the very same rule as in German.
The resource function ``AdjCN`` has different implementations in the two The resource function ``AdjCN`` has different implementations in the two
languages, but the application programmer need not care about the difference. languages (e.g. a different word order in French),
but the application programmer need not care about the difference.
===A complete example=== ===A complete example===
@@ -117,7 +119,8 @@ The abstract syntax defines a "domain ontology":
American : Property ; American : Property ;
} }
``` ```
The concrete syntax is defined independently of language, by opening The concrete syntax is defined by a functor (parametrize module),
independently of language, by opening
two interfaces: the resource ``Grammar`` and an application lexicon. two interfaces: the resource ``Grammar`` and an application lexicon.
``` ```
incomplete concrete MusicI of Music = open Grammar, MusicLex in { incomplete concrete MusicI of Music = open Grammar, MusicLex in {
@@ -139,13 +142,13 @@ the resource category system ``Cat``.
american_A : A ; american_A : A ;
} }
``` ```
Each language has its own concrete syntax, which opens the inflectional paradigms Each language has its own concrete syntax, which opens the
module for that language: inflectional paradigms module for that language:
``` ```
concrete MusicLexGer of MusicLex = CatGer ** open ParadigmsGer in { concrete MusicLexGer of MusicLex = CatGer ** open ParadigmsGer in {
lin lin
song_N = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter ; song_N = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter ;
american_A = regA "amerikanisch" ; american_A = regA "Amerikanisch" ;
} }
concrete MusicLexFre of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsFre in { concrete MusicLexFre of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsFre in {
@@ -154,8 +157,8 @@ module for that language:
american_A = regA "américain" ; american_A = regA "américain" ;
} }
``` ```
The top-level ``Music`` grammars are obtained by instantiating the two interfaces The top-level ``Music`` grammars are obtained by
of ``MusicI``: instantiating the two interfaces of ``MusicI``:
``` ```
concrete MusicGer of Music = MusicI with concrete MusicGer of Music = MusicI with
(Grammar = GrammarGer), (Grammar = GrammarGer),
@@ -172,8 +175,10 @@ Both of these files can use the same ``path``, defined as
The ``present`` category contains the compiled resources, restricted to The ``present`` category contains the compiled resources, restricted to
present tense; ``alltenses`` has the full resources. present tense; ``alltenses`` has the full resources.
To localize the music player system to a new language, all that is needed is two modules, To localize the music player system to a new language,
one implementing ``MusicLex`` and the other instantiating ``Music``. The latter is all that is needed is two modules,
one implementing ``MusicLex`` and the other
instantiating ``Music``. The latter is
completely trivial, whereas the former one involves the choice of correct completely trivial, whereas the former one involves the choice of correct
vocabulary and inflectional paradigms. For instance, Finnish is added as follows: vocabulary and inflectional paradigms. For instance, Finnish is added as follows:
``` ```
@@ -222,8 +227,8 @@ gives its own definition of this function:
===Parsing with resource grammars?=== ===Parsing with resource grammars?===
The intended use of the resource grammar is as a library for writing The intended use of the resource grammar is as a library for writing
application grammars. It is not designed for e.g. parsing newspaper text. There application grammars. It is not designed for parsing e.g. newspaper text. There
are several reasons why this is not so practical: are several reasons why this is not practical:
- Efficiency: the resource grammar uses complex data structures, in - Efficiency: the resource grammar uses complex data structures, in
particular, discontinuous constituents, which make parsing slow and the particular, discontinuous constituents, which make parsing slow and the
parser size huge. parser size huge.
@@ -245,9 +250,9 @@ details such as inflection, agreement, and word order.
It is for the same reasons that resource grammars are not adequate for translation. It is for the same reasons that resource grammars are not adequate for translation.
That the syntax API is implemented for different languages of course makes That the syntax API is implemented for different languages of course makes
it possible to translate via it - but there is no guarantee of translation it possible to translate via it - but there is no guarantee of translation
equivalence. Of course, the use of parametrized implementations such as ``MusicI`` equivalence. Of course, the use of functor implementations such as ``MusicI``
above only extends to those cases where the syntax API does give translation above only extends to those cases where the syntax API does give translation
equivalence - but this must be seen as a limiting case, and real applications equivalence - but this must be seen as a limiting case, and bigger applications
will often use only restricted inheritance of ``MusicI``. will often use only restricted inheritance of ``MusicI``.
@@ -257,7 +262,8 @@ will often use only restricted inheritance of ``MusicI``.
===Inflection paradigms=== ===Inflection paradigms===
Inflection paradigms are defined separately for each language //L// Inflection paradigms are defined separately for each language //L//
in the module ``Paradigms``//L//. To test them, the command ``cc`` (= ``compute_concrete``) in the module ``Paradigms``//L//. To test them, the command
``cc`` (= ``compute_concrete``)
can be used: can be used:
``` ```
> i -retain german/ParadigmsGer.gf > i -retain german/ParadigmsGer.gf
@@ -292,13 +298,14 @@ For the sake of convenience, every language implements these four paradigms:
It is often possible to initialize a lexicon by just using these functions, It is often possible to initialize a lexicon by just using these functions,
and later revise it by using the more involved paradigms. For instance, in and later revise it by using the more involved paradigms. For instance, in
German we cannot use ``regN "Lied"`` for ``Song``, because the result would be a German we cannot use ``regN "Lied"`` for ``Song``, because the result would be a
Masculine noun with the plural form ``"Liede"``. The individual ``Paradigms`` modules Masculine noun with the plural form ``"Liede"``.
The individual ``Paradigms`` modules
tell what cases are covered by the regular heuristics. tell what cases are covered by the regular heuristics.
As a limiting case, one could even initialize the lexicon for a new language As a limiting case, one could even initialize the lexicon for a new language
by copying the English (or some other already existing) lexicon. This will by copying the English (or some other already existing) lexicon. This would
produce language with correct grammar but with content words directly borrowed from produce language with correct grammar but with content words directly borrowed from
English. English - maybe not so strange in certain technical domains.
@@ -311,14 +318,16 @@ a group of one or more related categories. For instance, the module
Thus the proper place to find out how nouns are modified with adjectives Thus the proper place to find out how nouns are modified with adjectives
is ``Noun``, because the result of the construction is again a common noun. is ``Noun``, because the result of the construction is again a common noun.
Browsing the libraries is helped by the gfdoc-generated HTML pages. Browsing the libraries is helped by the gfdoc-generated HTML pages,
whose LaTeX versions are included in the present document.
However, this is still not easy, and the most efficient way is However, this is still not easy, and the most efficient way is
probably to use the parser. probably to use the parser.
Even though parsing is not an intended end-user application Even though parsing is not an intended end-user application
of resource grammars, it is a useful technique for application grammarians of resource grammars, it is a useful technique for application grammarians
to browse the library. To find out what resource function does some to browse the library. To find out which resource function implements
particular job, you can just parse a string that exemplifies this job. For a particular structure, one can just parse a string that exemplifies this
instance, to find out how sentences are built using transitive verbs, write structure. For instance, to find out how sentences are built using
transitive verbs, write
``` ```
> i english/LangEng.gf > i english/LangEng.gf
@@ -381,8 +390,8 @@ However, the technique of example-based grammar writing has some limitations:
it may not be the intended one. The other parses are shown in a comment, from it may not be the intended one. The other parses are shown in a comment, from
where they must/can be picked manually. where they must/can be picked manually.
- Lexicality. The arguments of a function must be atomic identifiers, and are thus - Lexicality. The arguments of a function must be atomic identifiers, and are thus
not available for categories that have no lexical items. For instance, the ``PropKind`` not available for categories that have no lexical items.
rule above gives the result For instance, the ``PropKind`` rule above gives the result
``` ```
lin lin
PropKind car_N old_A = AdjCN (UseN car_N) (PositA old_A) ; PropKind car_N old_A = AdjCN (UseN car_N) (PositA old_A) ;
@@ -400,8 +409,9 @@ and then use this lexicon instead of the standard one included in ``Lang``.
===Special-purpose APIs=== ===Special-purpose APIs===
To give an analogy with a well-known type setting program, GF can be compared To give an analogy with the well-known type setting software, GF can be compared
with TeX and the resource grammar library with LaTeX. As TeX frees the author with TeX and the resource grammar library with LaTeX.
Just like TeX frees the author
from thinking about low-level problems of page layout, so GF frees the grammarian from thinking about low-level problems of page layout, so GF frees the grammarian
from writing parsing and generation algorithms. But quite a lot of knowledge of from writing parsing and generation algorithms. But quite a lot of knowledge of
//how// to write grammars is still needed, and the resource grammar library helps //how// to write grammars is still needed, and the resource grammar library helps
@@ -436,12 +446,13 @@ The implementation of this module is the functor ``PredicationI``:
Of course, ``Predication`` can be opened together with ``Grammar``, but using Of course, ``Predication`` can be opened together with ``Grammar``, but using
the resulting grammar for parsing can be frustrating, since having both the resulting grammar for parsing can be frustrating, since having both
ways of building clauses simultaneously available will produce spurious ways of building clauses simultaneously available will produce spurious
ambiguities. Using ``Predication`` without ``Verb`` for parsing is a better idea, ambiguities. But using just ``Predication`` without ``Verb``
since parsing is also made more efficient without rules for the ``VP`` category. for parsing is a good idea,
since parsing is more efficient without rules producing verb phrases.
The use of special-purpose APIs is to some extent just an alternative The use of special-purpose APIs is to some extent just an alternative
to grammar writing by parsing, and its importance may decrease as parsing to grammar writing by parsing, and its importance may decrease as parsing
with resource grammars gets more efficient. with resource grammars becomes more practical.
@@ -556,9 +567,11 @@ many constructors:
The linguistic phenomena mostly discussed in both traditional grammars and modern The linguistic phenomena mostly discussed in both traditional grammars and modern
syntax belong to the level of Clauses, that is, lines 9-13, and occasionally syntax belong to the level of Clauses, that is, lines 9-13, and occasionally
to Sentences, lines 5-13. At this level, the major categories are to Sentences, lines 5-13. At this level, the major categories are
``NP`` (Noun Phrase) and ``VP`` (Verb Phrase). A Clause typically consists of just an ``NP`` (Noun Phrase) and ``VP`` (Verb Phrase). A Clause typically
``NP`` and a ``VP``. The internal structure of both ``NP`` and ``VP`` can be very complex, consists of just an ``NP`` and a ``VP``.
and these categories are mutually recursive: not only can a ``VP`` contain an ``NP``, The internal structure of both ``NP`` and ``VP`` can be very complex,
and these categories are mutually recursive: not only can a ``VP``
contain an ``NP``,
``` ```
[VP loves [NP Mary]] [VP loves [NP Mary]]
``` ```
@@ -588,7 +601,8 @@ The most frequent ways are
**Verb**. **Verb**.
How to construct VPs. The main mechanism is verbs with their arguments, for instance, How to construct VPs. The main mechanism is verbs with their arguments,
for instance,
- one-place verbs: "walks" - one-place verbs: "walks"
- two-place verbs: "loves Mary" - two-place verbs: "loves Mary"
- three-place verbs: "gives her a kiss" - three-place verbs: "gives her a kiss"
@@ -613,12 +627,13 @@ How to constuct ``AP``s. The main ways are
**Adverb**. **Adverb**.
How to construct ``Adv``s. The main ways are How to construct ``Adv``s. The main ways are
- from adjectives: "slowly" - from adjectives: "slowly"
- as prepositional phrases: "in the car"
===Modules and their names=== ===Modules and their names===
The resource modules are named after the kind of phrases that are constructed in them, The resource modules are named after the kind of
phrases that are constructed in them,
and they can be roughly classified by the "level" or "size" of expressions that are and they can be roughly classified by the "level" or "size" of expressions that are
formed in them: formed in them:
- Larger than sentence: ``Text``, ``Phrase`` - Larger than sentence: ``Text``, ``Phrase``
@@ -631,7 +646,8 @@ Because of mutual recursion such as in embedded sentences, this classification i
not a complete order. However, no mutual dependence is needed between the not a complete order. However, no mutual dependence is needed between the
modules in a formal sense - they can all be compiled separately. This is due modules in a formal sense - they can all be compiled separately. This is due
to the module ``Cat``, which defines the type system common to the other modules. to the module ``Cat``, which defines the type system common to the other modules.
For instance, the types ``NP`` and ``VP`` are defined in ``Cat``, and the module ``Verb`` only For instance, the types ``NP`` and ``VP`` are defined in ``Cat``,
and the module ``Verb`` only
needs to know what is given in ``Cat``, not what is given in ``Noun``. To implement needs to know what is given in ``Cat``, not what is given in ``Noun``. To implement
a rule such as a rule such as
``` ```
@@ -665,7 +681,8 @@ The module ``Idiom`` is a collection of idiomatic structures whose
implementation is very language-dependent. An example is existential implementation is very language-dependent. An example is existential
structures ("there is", "es gibt", "il y a", etc). structures ("there is", "es gibt", "il y a", etc).
The module ``Lang`` combines ``Grammar`` with a ``Lexicon`` of ca. 350 content words: The module ``Lang`` combines ``Grammar`` with a ``Lexicon`` of
ca. 350 content words:
``` ```
abstract Lang = Grammar, Lexicon abstract Lang = Grammar, Lexicon
``` ```
@@ -693,18 +710,22 @@ rules. The top level of each languages looks as follows (with English as example
abstract English = Grammar, ExtraEngAbs, DictEngAbs abstract English = Grammar, ExtraEngAbs, DictEngAbs
``` ```
where ``ExtraEngAbs`` is a collection of syntactic structures specific to English, where ``ExtraEngAbs`` is a collection of syntactic structures specific to English,
and ``DictEngAbs`` is an English dictionary (at the moment, it consists of ``IrregEngAbs``, and ``DictEngAbs`` is an English dictionary
(at the moment, it consists of ``IrregEngAbs``,
the irregular verbs of English). Each of these language-specific grammars has the irregular verbs of English). Each of these language-specific grammars has
the potential to grow into a full-scale grammar of the language. These grammar the potential to grow into a full-scale grammar of the language. These grammar
can also be used as libraries, but the possibility of using functors is lost. can also be used as libraries, but the possibility of using functors is lost.
To give a better overview of language-specific structures, modules like ``ExtraEngAbs`` To give a better overview of language-specific structures,
are built from a language-independent module ``ExtraAbs`` by restricted inheritance: modules like ``ExtraEngAbs``
are built from a language-independent module ``ExtraAbs``
by restricted inheritance:
``` ```
abstract ExtraEngAbs = Extra [f,g,...] abstract ExtraEngAbs = Extra [f,g,...]
``` ```
Thus any category and function in ``Extra`` may be shared by a subset of all Thus any category and function in ``Extra`` may be shared by a subset of all
languages. One can see this set-up as a matrix, which tells what ``Extra`` structures languages. One can see this set-up as a matrix, which tells
what ``Extra`` structures
are implemented in what languages. For the common API in ``Grammar``, the matrix are implemented in what languages. For the common API in ``Grammar``, the matrix
is filled with 1's (everything is implemented in every language). is filled with 1's (everything is implemented in every language).
@@ -735,7 +756,6 @@ has only been exploited in a very small scale so far.
%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Idiom.txt %!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Idiom.txt
%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Noun.txt %!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Noun.txt
%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Numeral.txt %!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Numeral.txt
%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/OldLexicon.txt
%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Phrase.txt %!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Phrase.txt
%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Question.txt %!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Question.txt
%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Relative.txt %!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Relative.txt