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lib/resource-0.6/russian/SyntaxRus.gf

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+--1 A Small Russian Resource Syntax          
+--
+-- Aarne Ranta, Janna Khegai 2003
+--
+-- This resource grammar contains definitions needed to construct 
+-- indicative, interrogative, and imperative sentences in Russian.
+--
+-- The following files are presupposed:
+resource SyntaxRus = MorphoRus ** open Prelude, (CO = Coordination) in {
+flags  coding=utf8 ;
+  
+--2 Common Nouns
+--
+--
+--3 Common noun phrases
+--
+-- Complex common nouns ($Comm'NounPhrase$)  have in principle
+-- the same parameters as simple ones.
+
+oper
+  CommNounPhrase: Type = {s : Number => Case => Str; g : Gender; anim : Animacy}  ;
+
+  noun2CommNounPhrase : CommNoun -> CommNounPhrase = \sb ->
+    {s = \\n,c => sb.s ! SF n c ; 
+     g = sb.g ; 
+     anim = sb.anim
+    } ;
+
+  commNounPhrase2CommNoun : CommNounPhrase -> CommNoun = \sb ->
+    {s = \\sf => sb.s ! (numSF sf) ! (caseSF sf) ; 
+     g = sb.g ; 
+     anim = sb.anim
+    } ;
+
+  n2n = noun2CommNounPhrase;
+  n2n2 = commNounPhrase2CommNoun ;
+
+--2 Noun Phrases
+--
+
+oper
+
+  NounPhrase : Type = { s : PronForm => Str ; n : Number ; 
+   p : Person ; g: Gender ; anim : Animacy ;  pron: Bool} ;
+
+-- The following construction has to be refined for genitive forms:
+-- "we two", "us two" are OK, but "our two" is not.
+
+  Numeral : Type = {s : Case => Gender => Str} ;
+
+  pronWithNum : NounPhrase -> Numeral -> NounPhrase = \mu,dva ->
+    {s = \\pf => mu.s!pf ++ dva.s ! (extCase pf) ! mu.g ; 
+     n = mu.n ; p = mu.p; g = mu.g ; pron = mu.pron; anim = mu.anim } ;
+
+ noNum : Numeral = {s = \\_,_ => []} ;
+ useInt : Str -> Numeral = \i -> 
+    {s = table {
+        Nom => table {_ => i }; 
+        Gen => table {_ => i ++ "'-х"};
+        Dat => table {_ => i ++ "'-м"};
+        Acc => table {_ => i };
+        Inst => table {_ => i ++ "-мя"};
+        Prepos => table {_ => i ++ "'-х"}
+         }
+    } ;
+
+  -- A function specific for Russian for setting the gender for 
+  -- personal pronouns in first and second person, singular :
+  setNPGender : Gender -> NounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \gen, pronI -> 
+    { s = pronI.s ; g = gen ; anim = pronI.anim ;
+      n = pronI.n ; nComp = pronI.nComp ; p = pronI.p ; pron = pronI.pron } ;  
+
+
+  mkNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n,chelovek -> 
+    {s = \\cas => chelovek.s ! n ! (extCase cas) ;
+     n = n ; g = chelovek.g ; p = P3 ; pron =False ;
+     anim = chelovek.anim 
+    } ;
+  pron2NounPhrase : Pronoun -> Animacy -> NounPhrase = \ona, anim -> 
+    {s = ona.s ; n = ona.n ; g = pgen2gen ona.g ; 
+     pron = ona.pron; p = ona.p ; anim = anim } ;
+
+  det2NounPhrase : Adjective -> NounPhrase = \eto -> 
+    {s = \\pf => eto.s ! (AF (extCase pf) Inanimate (ASg Neut)); n = Sg ; g = Neut ; pron = False ; p = P3 ; anim = Inanimate } ;
+
+  nameNounPhrase : ProperName -> NounPhrase = 
+    \masha -> {s = \\c => masha.s ! (extCase c) ; 
+      p = P3; g = masha.g ; anim = masha.anim ; 
+      n = Sg; nComp = Sg; pron = False} ;
+
+
+--2 Determiners
+--
+-- Determiners (only determinative pronouns 
+-- (or even indefinite numerals: "много" (many)) in Russian) are inflected 
+-- according to the gender of nouns they determine.
+-- extra parameters (Number and Case) are added for the sake of                            	
+-- the determinative pronoun "bolshinstvo" ("most");
+-- Gender parameter is due to multiple determiners (Numerals in Russian)
+-- like "mnogo"
+-- The determined noun has the case parameter specific for the determiner:
+
+  Determiner : Type = Adjective ** { n: Number; g: PronGen; c : Case } ;
+
+  anyPlDet = kakojNibudDet ** {n = Pl;  c= Nom} ; 
+
+  mkDeterminerNum : Determiner -> Numeral -> Determiner = \vse,dva -> 
+    {s =\\af => vse.s ! af ++ dva.s ! (caseAF af) ! (genAF af) ; 
+     n = vse.n; g = vse.g; c=vse.c
+    } ;
+
+  detNounPhrase : Determiner -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \kazhduj, okhotnik -> 
+    {s = \\c => case kazhduj.c of {
+       Nom => 
+        kazhduj.s ! AF (extCase c) okhotnik.anim (gNum okhotnik.g kazhduj.n) ++ 
+         okhotnik.s ! kazhduj.n ! (extCase c) ; 
+       _ => 
+        kazhduj.s ! AF (extCase c) okhotnik.anim (gNum okhotnik.g kazhduj.n) ++ 
+         okhotnik.s ! kazhduj.n ! kazhduj.c };
+     n = kazhduj.n ; 
+     p = P3 ;
+     pron = False;
+     g = case kazhduj.g of { PNoGen => okhotnik.g;  _=> pgen2gen kazhduj.g } ;
+     anim = okhotnik.anim 
+    } ;
+
+ indefNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n ->
+    indefNounPhraseNum n noNum ; 
+
+  indefNounPhraseNum : Number -> Numeral ->CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = 
+    \n,dva,mashina -> 
+    {s = \\c =>  dva.s ! (extCase c) ! mashina.g ++  mashina.s ! n !  (extCase c) ;
+     n = n ; p = P3; g = mashina.g ; anim = mashina.anim ; 
+     pron = False
+    } ;
+
+-- Genitives of noun phrases can be used like determiners, 
+-- to build noun phrases.
+-- The number argument makes the difference between "мой дом" - "мои дома".
+--
+-- The variation like in "the car of John / John's car" in English is
+-- not equally natural for proper names and pronouns and the rest of nouns.
+-- Compare "дверца машины" and "машины дверца", while 
+-- "Ванина мама" and "мама Вани" or "моя мама" and "мама моя".
+-- Here we have to make a choice of a universal form, which will be
+-- "моя мама" - "Вани мама" - "машины дверца", which sounds
+-- the best for pronouns, a little worse for proper names and 
+-- the worst for the rest of nouns. The reason is the fact that 
+-- possession/genetive is more a human category and pronouns are 
+-- used very often, so we try to suit this case in the first place.
+
+  npGenDet : Number -> Numeral -> NounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = 
+    \n,dva, masha,mashina -> 
+      {s = \\c => case masha.pron of 
+           { True =>  masha.s ! (mkPronForm Nom No (Poss (gNum mashina.g n))) ++ 
+                   dva.s ! Nom ! mashina.g ++ mashina.s ! n ! (extCase c)  ;
+             False => masha.s ! (mkPronForm Gen No (Poss (gNum mashina.g n))) ++ 
+                   dva.s ! Nom ! mashina.g ++ mashina.s ! n ! (extCase c)  
+           } ;
+       n = n ; p = P3 ;  g = mashina.g ; anim = mashina.anim ; pron = False
+      } ;
+
+-- Constructions like "the idea that two is even" are formed at the
+-- first place as common nouns, so that one can also have "a suggestion that...".
+
+  nounThatSentence : CommNounPhrase -> Sentence -> CommNounPhrase = \idea,x -> 
+    {s = \\n,c => idea.s ! n ! c ++ ["о том, что"] ++ x.s ; 
+     g = idea.g; anim = idea.anim
+    } ;
+           
+--2 Adjectives
+--3 Simple adjectives
+--
+-- A special type of adjectives just having positive forms 
+-- (for semantic reasons)  is useful, e.g. "русский".
+ 
+oper 
+
+  extAdjective : AdjDegr -> Adjective = \adj ->
+    { s = \\af => adj.s ! Pos ! af } ;
+
+  -- Coercions between the compound gen-num type and gender and number:
+
+  gNum : Gender -> Number -> GenNum = \g,n -> 
+    case n of {Sg => case g of 
+                 { Fem => ASg Fem ;
+                   Masc => ASg Masc ;
+                   Neut => ASg Neut 
+                   -- _  => variants {ASg Masc ; ASg Fem}
+                   } ; Pl => APl} ;
+
+
+
+--3 Adjective phrases
+-- 
+-- An adjective phrase may contain a complement, e.g. "моложе Риты".
+-- Then it is used as postfix in modification, e.g. "человек, моложе Риты".
+
+  IsPostfixAdj = Bool ;
+
+  AdjPhrase : Type = Adjective ** {p : IsPostfixAdj} ;
+
+-- Simple adjectives are not postfix:
+
+  adj2adjPhrase : Adjective -> AdjPhrase = \novuj -> novuj ** {p = False} ;
+
+--3 Comparison adjectives
+--
+-- Each of the comparison forms has a characteristic use:
+--
+-- Positive forms are used alone, as adjectival phrases ("большой").
+
+  positAdjPhrase : AdjDegr -> AdjPhrase = \bolshoj -> 
+    adj2adjPhrase (extAdjective bolshoj) ;
+
+-- Comparative forms are used with an object of comparison, as
+-- adjectival phrases ("больше тебя").
+
+  comparAdjPhrase : AdjDegr -> NounPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \bolshoj, tu ->
+    {s = \\af => bolshoj.s ! Comp ! af ++ tu.s ! (mkPronForm Gen Yes NonPoss) ; 
+     p = True
+    } ;
+
+-- Superlative forms are used with a modified noun, picking out the
+-- maximal representative of a domain ("самый большой дом").
+
+  superlNounPhrase : AdjDegr -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \bolshoj, dom ->
+    {s = \\pf => bolshoj.s ! Super ! AF (extCase pf) dom.anim (gNum dom.g Sg) ++ 
+         dom.s  ! Sg ! (extCase pf) ; 
+     n = Sg ;
+     p = P3 ;
+     pron = False;
+     anim = dom.anim ;
+     g = dom.g
+    } ;
+
+
+--3 Two-place adjectives
+--
+-- A two-place adjective is an adjective with a preposition used before
+-- the complement. (Rem. $Complement =  {s2 : Str ; c : Case} $).
+
+  
+  AdjCompl = Adjective ** Complement ;
+
+  complAdj : AdjCompl -> NounPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \vlublen,tu ->
+    {s = \\af => vlublen.s ! af ++ vlublen.s2 ++ 
+          tu.s ! (mkPronForm vlublen.c No NonPoss) ;
+     p = True
+    } ;
+
+--3 Complements
+--
+
+  Complement =  {s2 : Str ; c : Case} ;
+
+  complement : Str -> Complement = \cherez ->
+    {s2 = cherez ; c = Nom} ;
+
+  complementDir : Complement = complement [] ;
+
+  complementCas : Case -> Complement = \c ->
+    {s2 = [] ; c = c} ;
+
+--2 Individual-valued functions
+
+-- An individual-valued function is a common noun together with the
+-- preposition prefixed to its argument ("ключ от дома").
+-- The situation is analogous to two-place adjectives and transitive verbs.
+--
+-- We allow the genitive construction to be used as a variant of
+-- all function applications. It would definitely be too restrictive only
+-- to allow it when the required case is genitive. We don't know if there
+-- are counterexamples to the liberal choice we've made.
+
+  Function = CommNounPhrase ** Complement ;
+
+
+-- The application of a function gives, in the first place, a common noun:
+-- "ключ от дома". From this, other rules of the resource grammar 
+-- give noun phrases, such as "ключи от дома", "ключи от дома
+-- и от машины", and "ключ от дома и машины" (the
+-- latter two corresponding to distributive and collective functions,
+-- respectively). Semantics will eventually tell when each
+-- of the readings is meaningful.
+
+  appFunComm : Function -> NounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase = \mama,ivan -> 
+     {s = \\n, cas => 
+         mama.s ! n ! cas ++ mama.s2 ++ 
+         ivan.s ! (mkPronForm mama.c No (Poss (gNum mama.g n)));
+       g = mama.g ;
+       anim = mama.anim
+      } ;
+
+-- It is possible to use a function word as a common noun; the semantics is
+-- often existential or indexical.
+
+  funAsCommNounPhrase : Function -> CommNounPhrase = \x -> x ;
+
+  mkFun : CommNoun -> Str -> Case -> Function = \f,p,c ->
+    (n2n f) ** {s2 = p ; c = c} ;
+
+-- The following is an aggregate corresponding to the original function application
+-- producing "детство Ивана" and "Иваново детство". It does not appear in the
+-- resource abstract syntax any longer.
+-- Both versions return "детсво Ивана" although "Иваново детство"
+-- must also be included 
+-- Such possesive form is only possible with proper names in Russian :
+
+  appFun : Bool -> Function -> NounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \coll,detstvo, ivan -> 
+    let {n = ivan.n ; nf = if_then_else Number coll Sg n} in 
+    variants {
+      indefNounPhrase nf (appFunComm detstvo ivan) ; -- detstvoIvana
+      npGenDet nf noNum ivan detstvo
+      } ;
+
+
+-- The commonest cases are functions with Genitive.
+
+  funGen : CommNoun -> Function = \urovenCen -> 
+    mkFun urovenCen [] Gen ;
+
+--3 Modification of common nouns
+--
+-- The two main functions of adjective are in predication ("Иван - молод")
+-- and in modification ("молодой человек"). Predication will be defined
+-- later, in the chapter on verbs.
+
+  modCommNounPhrase : AdjPhrase -> CommNounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase = 
+    \khoroshij,novayaMashina ->
+    {s = \\n, c => 
+         khoroshij.s ! AF c novayaMashina.anim (gNum novayaMashina.g n) ++ 
+         novayaMashina.s ! n ! c ;
+         g = novayaMashina.g ; 
+         anim = novayaMashina.anim
+     } ;                          
+
+--2 Verbs
+
+--3 Transitive verbs
+--
+-- Transitive verbs are verbs with a preposition for the complement,
+-- in analogy with two-place adjectives and functions.
+-- One might prefer to use the term "2-place verb", since
+-- "transitive" traditionally means that the inherent preposition is empty
+-- and the case is accusative. 
+-- Such a verb is one with a *direct object*.
+-- Note: Direct verb phrases where the Genitive case is also possible 
+-- ("купить хлеба", "не читать газет") are overlooked in mkDirectVerb
+-- and can be expressed via more a general rule mkTransVerb.
+
+  TransVerb : Type = Verb ** {s2 : Str ; c: Case } ; 
+
+  complementOfTransVerb : TransVerb -> Complement = \v -> {s2 = v.s2 ; c = v.c} ;
+  verbOfTransVerb       : TransVerb -> Verb   = \v -> 
+    {s = v.s; t = v.t; a = v.a ; w = v.w } ;
+
+  mkTransVerb : Verb -> Str  -> Case -> TransVerb = \v,p,cas -> 
+    v ** {s2 = p ; c = cas } ;
+
+  mkDirectVerb : Verb -> TransVerb = \v -> 
+    mkTransVerb v nullPrep Acc;
+
+  nullPrep : Str = [] ;
+
+-- The rule for using transitive verbs is the complementization rule:
+
+  complTransVerb : Bool -> TransVerb -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase = \b,se,tu ->
+    {s = se.s ; a = se.a ; t = se.t ; w = se.w ; s2 = negation b ;
+     s3 = \\_,_ => se.s2 ++ tu.s ! (mkPronForm se.c No NonPoss) ; 
+     negBefore = True } ;
+
+--3 Verb phrases
+--
+-- Verb phrases are discontinuous: the parts of a verb phrase are
+-- (s) an inflected verb, (s2) verb adverbials (such as negation), and
+-- (s3) complement. This discontinuity is needed in sentence formation
+-- to account for word order variations.
+
+  VerbPhrase : Type = Verb ** {s2 : Str ; s3 : Gender => Number => Str ;
+    negBefore: Bool} ;
+
+-- A simple verb can be made into a verb phrase with an empty complement.
+-- There are two versions, depending on if we want to negate the verb.
+
+  predVerb : Bool -> Verb -> VerbPhrase = \b,vidit -> 
+    vidit ** {
+     s2 = negation b ; 
+     s3 = \\_,_ => [] ;
+     negBefore = True
+     } ;
+
+  negation : Bool -> Str = \b -> if_then_else Str b [] "не" ; 
+
+-- Sometimes we want to extract the verb part of a verb phrase.
+
+  verbOfPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Verb = \v -> 
+    {s = v.s; t = v.t ; a = v.a ; w =v.w} ;
+
+
+-- Verb phrases can also be formed from adjectives ("- молод"),
+-- common nouns ("- человек"), and noun phrases ("- самый молодой").
+-- The third rule is overgenerating: "- каждый человек" has to be ruled out
+-- on semantic grounds.
+-- Note: in some case we can even omit a dash "-"  :
+-- "Я думаю, что это хорошая машина".
+
+  predAdjective : Bool -> Adjective -> VerbPhrase = \b,zloj ->
+    { s= \\_ => "-" ;        
+      t = Present ; 
+      a = Imperfective ;
+      w = Act ;
+      s2 = negation b ; 
+      s3 = \\g,n => case n of {
+          Sg => zloj.s ! AF Nom Animate (ASg g) ;
+          Pl => zloj.s ! AF Nom Animate APl  
+          } ;
+     negBefore = False
+    } ;
+
+  predCommNoun : Bool -> CommNounPhrase -> VerbPhrase = \b,chelovek ->
+   {  s= \\_ => "-" ;        
+      t = Present ; 
+      a = Imperfective ;
+      w = Act ;
+      s2 = negation b ;
+      s3 = \\_,n => (indefNounPhrase n chelovek ).s ! (mkPronForm Nom No NonPoss) ;
+      negBefore = False
+     } ;
+
+  predNounPhrase : Bool -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase = \b,masha ->
+    { s= \\_ => "-" ;        
+      t = Present ; 
+      a = Imperfective ;
+      w = Act ;
+      s2 = negation b ;
+      s3 = \\_,_ => masha.s ! (mkPronForm Nom No NonPoss) ;
+      negBefore = False
+    } ;
+
+  -- A function specific for Russian :
+  predNeedShortAdjective: Bool -> NounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase -> Sentence = 
+     \ b, Jag, Dig -> { s =
+    let {
+      mne  = Jag.s ! (mkPronForm Dat No NonPoss) ; 
+      nuzhen  = need.s ! AF Nom Inanimate (gNum Dig.g Sg)  ;
+      doctor = Dig.s ! Sg ! Nom ;
+      ne = negation b
+    } in
+       mne ++ ne ++ nuzhen ++ doctor 
+    } ;
+
+-- Two-place functions add one argument place.
+
+  Function2 = Function ** {s3 : Str; c2: Case} ;
+
+-- There application starts by filling the first place.
+
+  appFun2 : Function2 -> NounPhrase -> Function = \poezd, paris ->
+    {s  = \\n,c => poezd.s ! n ! c ++ poezd.s2 ++ paris.s ! (PF poezd.c Yes NonPoss) ;
+     g  = poezd.g ; anim = poezd.anim;
+     s2 = poezd.s3; c = poezd.c2 
+    } ;
+
+--2 Adverbials
+--
+  adVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Adverb -> VerbPhrase = \poet, khorosho ->
+    {s = \\vf => khorosho.s ++ poet.s ! vf ; s2 = poet.s2; s3 = poet.s3;
+     a = poet.a; w = poet.w; t = poet.t ; negBefore = poet.negBefore } ;
+                   
+-- Adverbials are typically generated by prefixing prepositions.
+-- The rule for creating locative noun phrases by the preposition "в"
+-- is a little shaky: "в России" but "на острове".
+-- Adverbials are typically generated by prefixing prepositions.
+-- The rule for creating locative noun phrases by the preposition "in"
+-- is a little shaky, since other prepositions may be preferred ("on", "at").
+
+  prepPhrase : Preposition -> NounPhrase -> Adverb = \na, stol ->
+    mkAdverb (na.s2 ++ stol.s ! PF na.c Yes NonPoss) ;
+
+  locativeNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> Adverb = \ivan ->
+    {s = "в" ++ ivan.s ! (mkPronForm Prepos Yes NonPoss) } ;
+
+   mkAdverb : Str -> Adverb = \well   -> ss well  ;
+-- This is a source of the "man with a telescope" ambiguity, and may produce
+-- strange things, like "машины всегда".
+-- Semantics will have to make finer distinctions among adverbials.
+
+  advCommNounPhrase : CommNounPhrase -> Adverb -> CommNounPhrase = \chelovek,uTelevizora ->
+    {s = \\n,c => chelovek.s ! n ! c ++ uTelevizora.s ;
+     g = chelovek.g ;
+     anim = chelovek.anim 
+    } ;
+
+  advAdjPhrase : SS -> AdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \ochen, khorosho ->
+    {s = \\a => ochen.s ++ khorosho.s ! a ;
+     p = khorosho.p
+    } ; 
+
+--2 Sentences
+--
+-- We do not introduce the word order parameter for sentences in Russian
+-- although there exist several word orders, but they are too specific
+-- to capture on the level we work here. 
+
+oper
+   Sentence : Type = { s : Str } ;
+
+-- This is the traditional $S -> NP VP$ rule. 
+
+    predVerbPhrase : NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Sentence = 
+    \Ya, tebyaNeVizhu -> { s =
+       let 
+       { ya = Ya.s ! (mkPronForm Nom No NonPoss);
+         ne = tebyaNeVizhu.s2;
+         vizhu = tebyaNeVizhu.s ! VFin (gNum Ya.g Ya.n) Ya.p;
+         tebya = tebyaNeVizhu.s3 ! Ya.g ! Ya.n 
+       }
+       in
+       if_then_else Str tebyaNeVizhu.negBefore  
+        (ya ++ ne ++ vizhu ++ tebya)
+        (ya ++ vizhu ++ ne ++ tebya)
+       
+    } ;
+
+  -- A function specific for Russian: 
+  U_predTransVerb : Bool -> TransVerb -> NounPhrase -> NounPhrase -> Sentence = 
+    \b,Ser,Jag,Dig -> { s =
+    let {
+      menya  =  Jag.s ! (mkPronForm Gen Yes NonPoss) ; 
+      bolit  = Ser.s ! VFin (gNum Dig.g Dig.n) Dig.p ;
+      golova = Dig.s ! (mkPronForm Nom No NonPoss) ;
+      ne = negation b
+    } in
+       "у" ++ menya ++ ne ++ bolit  ++ golova 
+    } ;
+
+
+-- This is a macro for simultaneous predication and complementation.
+
+  predTransVerb : Bool -> TransVerb -> NounPhrase -> NounPhrase -> Sentence = 
+    \b,vizhu,ya,tu -> predVerbPhrase ya (complTransVerb b vizhu tu) ;
+ 
+--3 Sentence-complement verbs
+--
+-- Sentence-complement verbs take sentences as complements.
+
+  SentenceVerb : Type = Verb ;
+
+-- To generate "сказал, что Иван гуляет" / "не сказал, что Иван гуляет":
+
+  complSentVerb : Bool -> SentenceVerb -> Sentence -> VerbPhrase = 
+    \b,vidit,tuUlubaeshsya ->
+    {s = vidit.s ; s2 = negation b ; s3 = \\_,_ => [", что"] ++ 
+     tuUlubaeshsya.s ;
+     t = vidit.t ; w = vidit.w ; a = vidit.a ; negBefore = True } ;
+
+
+--2 Sentences missing noun phrases
+--
+-- This is one instance of Gazdar's *slash categories*, corresponding to his
+-- $S/NP$.
+-- We cannot have - nor would we want to have - a productive slash-category former.
+-- Perhaps a handful more will be needed.
+--
+-- Notice that the slash category has the same relation to sentences as
+-- transitive verbs have to verbs: it's like a *sentence taking a complement*.
+
+  SentenceSlashNounPhrase = Sentence ** Complement ;
+
+  slashTransVerb : Bool -> NounPhrase -> TransVerb -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase = 
+    \b,ivan,lubit ->
+    predVerbPhrase ivan (predVerb b (verbOfTransVerb lubit)) ** 
+    complementOfTransVerb lubit ;
+
+--thereIs : NounPhrase -> Sentence = \abar ->
+ --   predVerbPhrase 
+  --    (case abar.n of {
+  --       Sg => nameNounPhrase (nameReg "there") ;
+  --       Pl => {s = \\_ => "there" ; n = Pl ; p = P3}
+  --       })
+  --    (predVerbGroup True (predNounPhrase abar)) ;
+
+--2 Coordination
+--
+-- Coordination is to some extent orthogonal to the rest of syntax, and
+-- has been treated in a generic way in the module $CO$ in the file
+-- $coordination.gf$. The overall structure is independent of category,
+-- but there can be differences in parameter dependencies.
+--
+--3 Conjunctions
+--
+-- Coordinated phrases are built by using conjunctions, which are either
+-- simple ("и", "или") or distributed ("как - так", "либо - либо").
+--
+-- The conjunction has an inherent number, which is used when conjoining
+-- noun phrases: "Иван и Маша поют" vs. "Иван или Маша поет"; in the
+-- case of "или", the result is however plural if any of the disjuncts is.
+
+  Conjunction = CO.Conjunction ** {n : Number} ;
+  ConjunctionDistr = CO.ConjunctionDistr ** {n : Number} ;
+
+--2 Relative pronouns and relative clauses
+--
+
+oper
+  identRelPron : RelPron = { s  = \\gn, c, anim => 
+     kotorujDet.s ! (AF c anim gn )} ;
+
+  funRelPron : Function -> RelPron -> RelPron = \mama, kotoruj -> 
+    {s = \\gn,c, anim => let {nu = numGNum gn} in
+           mama.s ! nu ! c ++  
+           mama.s2 ++ kotoruj.s !  gn ! mama.c ! anim
+    } ;
+
+-- Relative clauses can be formed from both verb phrases ("видит Машу") and
+-- slash expressions ("я вижу"). 
+
+  RelClause : Type = RelPron ;
+
+  relVerbPhrase : RelPron -> VerbPhrase -> RelClause = \kotoruj, gulyaet ->
+    { s = \\gn, c, anim =>  let { nu = numGNum gn } in
+      kotoruj.s ! gn ! c ! anim ++ gulyaet.s2 ++ gulyaet.s ! VFin gn P3 ++ 
+       gulyaet.s3 ! genGNum gn ! nu
+    } ;
+
+  relSlash : RelPron -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase -> RelClause = 
+   \kotoruj, yaVizhu ->
+    {s = \\gn, _ , anim => yaVizhu.s2 ++ kotoruj.s ! gn ! yaVizhu.c ! anim 
+         ++ yaVizhu.s 
+    } ;
+
+-- A 'degenerate' relative clause is the one often used in mathematics, e.g.
+-- "число x, такое что x - четное".
+
+  relSuch : Sentence -> RelClause = \A ->
+    {s = \\gn,c, anim => takoj.s ! AF c anim gn ++ "что" ++ A.s } ;
+
+-- The main use of relative clauses is to modify common nouns.
+-- The result is a common noun, out of which noun phrases can be formed
+-- by determiners. A comma is used before the relative clause.
+
+  modRelClause : CommNounPhrase -> RelClause -> CommNounPhrase = 
+    \chelovek,kotorujSmeetsya ->
+    { s = \\n,c => chelovek.s ! n ! c ++ "," ++ 
+           kotorujSmeetsya.s ! gNum chelovek.g n ! Nom ! chelovek.anim;
+      g = chelovek.g ;
+      anim = chelovek.anim
+    } ;
+
+
+--2 Interrogative pronouns
+--
+-- If relative pronouns are adjective-like, interrogative pronouns are
+-- noun-phrase-like. Actually we can use the very same type!
+
+  IntPron : Type = NounPhrase ; 
+
+-- In analogy with relative pronouns, we have a rule for applying a function
+-- to a relative pronoun to create a new one. We can reuse the rule applying
+-- functions to noun phrases!
+
+  funIntPron : Function -> IntPron -> IntPron = 
+    appFun False ; 
+
+-- There is a variety of simple interrogative pronouns:
+-- "какая машина", "кто", "что".
+
+  nounIntPron : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> IntPron = \n, x ->
+    detNounPhrase (kakojDet ** {n = n ; g = PNoGen;  c = Nom}) x ;
+
+  intPronKto : Number -> IntPron = \num -> 
+  { s = table {
+    PF Nom _ _ => "кто"  ; 
+    PF Gen _ _ => "кого" ;
+    PF Dat _  _ => "кому" ; 
+    PF Acc _ _ => "кого" ; 
+    PF Inst _ _ => "кем" ;
+    PF Prepos _ _ => ["о ком"] 
+    } ;
+    g = Masc ;
+    anim = Animate ;
+    n = num ;
+    p = P3  ;
+    pron = False
+  } ;
+ 
+
+
+  intPronChto : Number -> IntPron = \num -> 
+  { s = table {
+    PF Nom _ _ => "что"  ; 
+    PF Gen _ _ => "чего" ;
+    PF Dat _ _ => "чему" ; 
+    PF Acc _ _ => "что" ; 
+    PF Inst _ _ => "чем" ;
+    PF Prepos _ _=> ["о чем"] 
+    } ;
+    g = Neut ;
+    anim = Inanimate ;
+    n = num ;
+    p = P3  ;
+    pron = False
+  } ;
+
+
+--2 Utterances
+
+-- By utterances we mean whole phrases, such as 
+-- 'can be used as moves in a language game': indicatives, questions, imperative,
+-- and one-word utterances. The rules are far from complete.
+--
+-- N.B. we have not included rules for texts, which we find we cannot say much
+-- about on this level. In semantically rich GF grammars, texts, dialogues, etc, 
+-- will of course play an important role as categories not reducible to utterances.
+-- An example is proof texts, whose semantics show a dependence between premises
+-- and conclusions. Another example is intersentential anaphora.
+
+  Utterance = SS ;
+
+  indicUtt : Sentence -> Utterance = \x -> postfixSS "." (defaultSentence x) ;
+  interrogUtt : Question -> Utterance = \x -> postfixSS "?" (defaultQuestion x) ;
+
+--2 Questions
+--
+-- Questions are either direct ("Ты счастлив?") 
+-- or indirect ("Потом он спросил счастлив ли ты").
+
+param 
+  QuestForm = DirQ | IndirQ ;
+
+oper
+  Question = SS1 QuestForm ;
+
+--3 Yes-no questions 
+--
+-- Yes-no questions are used both independently ("Ты взял мяч?")
+-- and after interrogative adverbials ("Почему ты взял мяч?").
+
+-- Note: The particle "ли" can also be used in direct questions:
+-- Видел ли ты что-нибудь подобное?
+-- but we are not considering this case.
+
+  questVerbPhrase : NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Question = 
+  \tu,spish -> 
+    let { vu = tu.s ! (mkPronForm Nom No NonPoss); 
+         spish = spish.s ! VFin (gNum tu.g tu.n) tu.p 
+              ++ spish.s2 ++ spish.s3 ! tu.g ! tu.n } in
+     { s = table {
+       DirQ   =>  vu ++ spish  ;
+       IndirQ => spish ++ "ли" ++ vu 
+      }
+    } ;
+
+--isThere : NounPhrase -> Question = \abar ->
+ --   questVerbPhrase 
+ --     (case abar.n of {
+ --        Sg => nameNounPhrase (nameReg "there") ;
+ --        Pl => {s = \\_ => "there" ; n = Pl ; p = P3}
+ --        })
+ --     (predVerbGroup True (predNounPhrase abar)) ;
+
+--3 Wh-questions
+--
+-- Wh-questions are of two kinds: ones that are like $NP - VP$ sentences,
+-- others that are like $S/NP - NP$ sentences.
+
+  intVerbPhrase : IntPron -> VerbPhrase -> Question = \kto,spit ->
+    {s = table { _  => (predVerbPhrase kto spit).s }
+    } ;
+
+  intSlash : IntPron -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase -> Question = \Kto, yaGovoru ->
+    let {  kom = Kto.s ! (mkPronForm yaGovoru.c No NonPoss) ; o = yaGovoru.s2 } in
+    {s = table {  _ => o ++ kom ++ yaGovoru.s  } 
+    } ;
+
+--3 Interrogative adverbials
+--
+-- These adverbials will be defined in the lexicon: they include
+-- "когда", "где", "как", "почему", etc, which are all invariant one-word
+-- expressions. In addition, they can be formed by adding prepositions
+-- to interrogative pronouns, in the same way as adverbials are formed
+-- from noun phrases. N.B. we rely on record subtyping when ignoring the
+-- position component.
+
+  IntAdverb = SS ;
+
+-- A question adverbial can be applied to anything, and whether this makes
+-- sense is a semantic question.
+
+  questAdverbial : IntAdverb -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Question = 
+    \kak, tu, pozhivaesh ->
+    {s = \\q => kak.s ++ tu.s ! (mkPronForm Nom No NonPoss) ++ 
+       pozhivaesh.s2 ++ pozhivaesh.s ! VFin (gNum tu.g tu.n) tu.p ++ 
+       pozhivaesh.s3 ! tu.g ! tu.n } ; 
+ 
+--2 Imperatives
+--
+-- We only consider second-person imperatives. 
+
+  Imperative: Type = { s: Gender => Number => Str } ;
+
+  imperVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Imperative = \budGotov -> 
+    {s = \\g, n => budGotov.s ! VImper n P2 ++ budGotov.s2 ++ budGotov.s3 ! g ! n} ;  
+
+  imperUtterance : Gender -> Number -> Imperative -> Utterance = \g,n,I ->
+    ss (I.s ! g ! n ++ "!") ;
+--2 Sentence adverbials
+--
+-- This class covers adverbials such as "otherwise", "therefore", which are prefixed
+-- to a sentence to form a phrase.
+
+  advSentence : SS -> Sentence -> Utterance = \sledovatelno, mamaMulaRamu ->
+    ss (sledovatelno.s ++ mamaMulaRamu.s ++ ".") ;
+
+--3 Coordinating sentences
+--
+-- We need a category of lists of sentences. It is a discontinuous
+-- category, the parts corresponding to 'init' and 'last' segments
+-- (rather than 'head' and 'tail', because we have to keep track of the slot between
+-- the last two elements of the list). A list has at least two elements.
+
+  ListSentence : Type = SD2 ;
+
+  twoSentence : (_,_ : Sentence) -> ListSentence = CO.twoSS ;
+
+  consSentence : ListSentence -> Sentence -> ListSentence =
+    CO.consSS CO.comma ;
+
+-- To coordinate a list of sentences by a simple conjunction, we place
+-- it between the last two elements; commas are put in the other slots,
+-- e.g. "ты куришь, вы пьете и я ем".
+
+  conjunctSentence : Conjunction -> ListSentence -> Sentence = \c,xs ->
+    ss (CO.conjunctX c xs) ;
+
+-- To coordinate a list of sentences by a distributed conjunction, we place
+-- the first part (e.g. "как") in front of the first element, the second
+-- part ("так и") between the last two elements, and commas in the other slots.
+-- For sentences this is really not used.
+
+  conjunctDistrSentence : ConjunctionDistr -> ListSentence -> Sentence = 
+    \c,xs ->
+    ss (CO.conjunctDistrX c xs) ;
+
+--3 Coordinating adjective phrases
+--
+-- The structure is the same as for sentences. The result is a prefix adjective
+-- if and only if all elements are prefix.
+
+  ListAdjPhrase : Type = 
+    {s1,s2 : AdjForm => Str ; p : Bool} ;
+
+  twoAdjPhrase : (_,_ : AdjPhrase) -> ListAdjPhrase = \x,y ->
+    CO.twoTable AdjForm x y ** {p = andB x.p y.p} ;
+
+  consAdjPhrase : ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase -> ListAdjPhrase =  \xs,x ->
+    CO.consTable AdjForm CO.comma xs x ** {p = andB xs.p x.p} ;
+
+  conjunctAdjPhrase : Conjunction -> ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \c,xs ->
+    CO.conjunctTable AdjForm c xs ** {p = xs.p} ;
+
+  conjunctDistrAdjPhrase : ConjunctionDistr -> ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \c,xs ->
+    CO.conjunctDistrTable AdjForm c xs ** {p = xs.p} ;
+
+
+--3 Coordinating noun phrases
+--
+-- The structure is the same as for sentences. The result is either always plural
+-- or plural if any of the components is, depending on the conjunction.
+
+  ListNounPhrase : Type = { s1,s2 : PronForm => Str ; g: Gender ; 
+                   anim : Animacy ; n : Number ; p : Person ;  pron : Bool } ;
+
+  twoNounPhrase : (_,_ : NounPhrase) -> ListNounPhrase = \x,y ->
+    CO.twoTable PronForm x y ** {n = conjNumber x.n y.n ; 
+       g = conjGender x.g y.g ; p = conjPerson x.p y.p ;
+       pron = conjPron x.pron y.pron ; anim = conjAnim x.anim y.anim } ;
+
+  consNounPhrase : ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase -> ListNounPhrase =  \xs,x ->
+    CO.consTable PronForm CO.comma xs x ** 
+       {n = conjNumber xs.n x.n ; g = conjGender x.g xs.g ;
+          anim = conjAnim x.anim xs.anim ;
+          p = conjPerson xs.p x.p; pron = conjPron xs.pron x.pron} ;
+
+  conjunctNounPhrase : Conjunction -> ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \c,xs ->
+    CO.conjunctTable PronForm c xs ** {n = conjNumber c.n xs.n ;
+      anim = xs.anim ;
+       p = xs.p; g = xs.g ; pron = xs.pron} ;
+
+  conjunctDistrNounPhrase : ConjunctionDistr -> ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = 
+    \c,xs ->
+    CO.conjunctDistrTable PronForm c xs ** {n = conjNumber c.n xs.n ; 
+      p = xs.p ; pron = xs.pron ; anim = xs.anim ; 
+       g = xs.g } ;
+
+-- We have to define a calculus of numbers of persons. For numbers,
+-- it is like the conjunction with $Pl$ corresponding to $False$.
+
+  conjNumber : Number -> Number -> Number = \m,n -> case <m,n> of {
+    <Sg,Sg> => Sg ;
+    _ => Pl 
+    } ;
+
+-- For persons, we let the latter argument win ("либо ты, либо я пойду"
+-- but "либо я, либо ты пойдешь"). This is not quite clear.
+
+  conjPerson : Person -> Person -> Person = \_,p -> 
+    p ;
+
+-- For pron, we let the latter argument win - "Маша или моя мама" (Nominative case)
+-- but - "моей или Машина мама" (Genetive case) both corresponds to 
+-- "Masha's or my mother"), which is actually not exactly correct, since
+-- different cases should be used - "Машина или моя мама".
+
+  conjPron : Bool -> Bool -> Bool = \_,p -> 
+    p ;
+
+-- For gender in a similar manner as for person:
+-- Needed for adjective predicates like:
+-- "Маша или Оля - красивая", "Антон или Олег - красивый",
+-- "Маша или Олег - красивый".
+-- The later is not totally correct, but there is no correct way to say that.
+
+  conjGender : Gender -> Gender -> Gender = \_,m -> m ; 
+
+  conjAnim : Animacy -> Animacy -> Animacy = \_,m -> m ; 
+
+--2 Subjunction
+--
+-- Subjunctions ("когда", "если", etc) 
+-- are a different way to combine sentences than conjunctions.
+-- The main clause can be a sentence, an imperative, or a question,
+-- but the subjoined clause must be a sentence.
+--
+-- There are uniformly two variant word orders, e.g. 
+-- "если ты закуришь, я рассержусь"
+-- and "я рассержусь, если ты закуришь".
+
+  Subjunction = SS ;
+
+  subjunctSentence : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Sentence -> Sentence = 
+    \if, A, B -> 
+    ss (subjunctVariants if A.s B.s) ;
+
+  subjunctImperative : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Imperative -> Imperative = 
+    \if, A, B -> 
+    {s = \\g,n => subjunctVariants if A.s (B.s ! g ! n)} ;
+
+  subjunctQuestion : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Question -> Question = 
+    \if, A, B ->
+    {s = \\q => subjunctVariants if A.s (B.s ! q)} ;
+
+  subjunctVerbPhrase: VerbPhrase -> Subjunction -> Sentence -> VerbPhrase =
+   \V, if, A -> adVerbPhrase V (mkAdverb (if.s ++ A.s)) ;
+
+  subjunctVariants : Subjunction -> Str -> Str -> Str = \if,A,B ->
+    variants {if.s ++ A ++ "," ++ B ; B ++ "," ++ if.s ++ A} ;
+
+--2 One-word utterances
+-- 
+-- An utterance can consist of one phrase of almost any category, 
+-- the limiting case being one-word utterances. These
+-- utterances are often (but not always) in what can be called the
+-- default form of a category, e.g. the nominative.
+-- This list is far from exhaustive.
+
+  useNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> Utterance = \masha ->
+    postfixSS "." (defaultNounPhrase masha) ;
+
+  useCommonNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> Utterance = \n,mashina -> 
+    useNounPhrase (indefNounPhrase n mashina) ;
+
+  useRegularName : Gender -> SS -> NounPhrase = \g, masha -> 
+    nameNounPhrase (case g of { Masc => mkProperNameMasc masha.s Animate;
+        _ => mkProperNameFem masha.s Animate }) ;
+
+-- Here are some default forms.
+
+  defaultNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> SS = \masha -> 
+    ss (masha.s ! PF Nom No NonPoss) ;
+
+  defaultQuestion : Question -> SS = \ktoTu ->
+    ss (ktoTu.s ! DirQ) ;
+
+  defaultSentence : Sentence -> Utterance = \x -> 
+    x ;
+};