From 784a1db90af0c38eb162083895a5e49acb8dd8ed Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: aarne Date: Tue, 13 Jun 2006 10:07:16 +0000 Subject: [PATCH] complete resource document --- doc/final-resource.tex | 5233 ++++++++++++++++++ doc/resource.txt | 270 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Adjective.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Adverb.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Cat.html | 44 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Common.html | 30 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Conjunction.html | 20 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Grammar.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Idiom.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Lang.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Mathematical.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Multi.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Noun.html | 24 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Numeral.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsDan.html | 90 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsEng.html | 86 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsFin.html | 42 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsFre.html | 78 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsGer.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsIta.html | 78 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsNor.html | 90 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsRus.html | 62 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsSpa.html | 78 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsSwe.html | 86 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Phrase.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Precedence.html | 6 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Predef.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/PredefAbs.html | 6 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Predication.html | 32 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Prelude.html | 36 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Question.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Relative.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Sentence.html | 28 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Structural.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Symbol.html | 20 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Tense.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Text.html | 9 +- lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Verb.html | 24 +- 38 files changed, 6134 insertions(+), 473 deletions(-) create mode 100644 doc/final-resource.tex diff --git a/doc/final-resource.tex b/doc/final-resource.tex new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d2dc2c44d --- /dev/null +++ b/doc/final-resource.tex @@ -0,0 +1,5233 @@ +\documentclass[11pt,a4paper]{article} +\usepackage{amsfonts,graphicx} +\usepackage[pdfstartview=FitH,urlcolor=blue,colorlinks=true,bookmarks=true]{hyperref} +\pagestyle{plain} % do page numbering ('empty' turns off) +\frenchspacing % no aditional spaces after periods +\setlength{\parskip}{8pt}\parindent=0pt % no paragraph indentation + +\newcommand{\commOut}[1]{} +\newcommand{\subsubsubsection}[1]{\textit{#1}} + +\title{The GF Resource Grammar Library} +\author{Author: Aarne Ranta} +\begin{document} +\date{Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006} +\maketitle + +\tableofcontents + +\clearpage + + +This document is about the +GF Resource Grammar Library. It presuppose knowledge of GF and its +module system, knowledge that can be acquired e.g. from the GF +tutorial. We start with an introduction to the library, and proceed to +details with the aim of covering all that one needs to know +in order to use the library. +How to write one's own resource grammar (i.e. implement the API for +a new language), is covered by a separate Resource-HOWTO document. + +\section{Motivation} +The GF Resource Grammar Library contains grammar rules for +10 languages (some more are under construction). Its purpose +is to make these rules available for application programmers, +who can thereby concentrate on the semantic and stylistic +aspects of their grammars, without having to think about +grammaticality. The level of a typical application grammarian +is skilled programmer, without knowledge linguistics, but with +a good knowledge of the target languages. Such a combination of +skilles is typical of a programmer who wants to localize a piece +of software to a new language. + +To give an example, an application dealing with +music players may have a semantical category \texttt{Kind}, examples +of Kinds being Song and Artist. In German, for instance, Song +is linearized into the noun "Lied", but knowing this is not +enough to make the application work, because the noun must be +produced in both singular and plural, and in four different +cases. By using the resource grammar library, it is enough to +write + +\begin{verbatim} + lin Song = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter +\end{verbatim} +and the eight forms are correctly generated. The resource grammar +library contains a complete set of inflectional paradigms (such as +regN2 here), enabling the definition of any lexical items. + +The resource grammar library is not only about inflectional paradigms - it +also has syntax rules. The music player application +might also want to modify songs with properties, such as "American", +"old", "good". The German grammar for adjectival modifications is +particularly complex, because the adjectives have to agree in gender, +number, and case, and also depend on what determiner is used +("ein Amerikanisches Lied" vs. "das Amerikanische Lied"). All this +variation is taken care of by the resource grammar function + +\begin{verbatim} + fun AdjCN : AP -> CN -> CN +\end{verbatim} +and the resource grammar implementation of the rule adding properties +to kinds is + +\begin{verbatim} + lin PropKind kind prop = AdjCN prop kind +\end{verbatim} +given that + +\begin{verbatim} + lincat Prop = AP + lincat Kind = CN +\end{verbatim} +The resource library API is devided into language-specific and language-independet +parts. To put is roughly, + +\begin{itemize} +\item lexicon is language-specific +\item syntax is language-independent +\end{itemize} + +Thus, to render the above example in French instead of German, we need to +pick a different linearization of Song, + +\begin{verbatim} + lin Song = regGenN "chanson" feminine +\end{verbatim} +But to linearize PropKind, we can use the very same rule as in German. +The resource function AdjCN has different implementations in the two +languages, but the application programmer need not care about the difference. + +\subsection{A complete example} +To summarize the example, and also give a template for a programmer to work on, +here is the complete implementation of a small system with songs and properties. +The abstract syntax defines a "domain ontology": + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Music = { + cat + Kind, + Property ; + fun + PropKind : Kind -> Property -> Kind ; + Song : Kind ; + American : Property ; + } +\end{verbatim} +The concrete syntax is defined independently of language, by opening +two interfaces: the resource Grammar and an application lexicon. + +\begin{verbatim} + incomplete concrete MusicI of Music = open Grammar, MusicLex in { + lincat + Kind = CN ; + Property = AP ; + lin + PropKind k p = AdjCN p k ; + Song = UseN song_N ; + American = PositA american_A ; + } +\end{verbatim} +The application lexicon MusicLex has an abstract syntax, that extends +the resource category system Cat. + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract MusicLex = Cat ** { + fun + song_N : N ; + american_A : A ; + } +\end{verbatim} +Each language has its own concrete syntax, which opens the inflectional paradigms +module for that language: + +\begin{verbatim} + concrete MusicLexGer of MusicLex = CatGer ** open ParadigmsGer in { + lin + song_N = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter ; + american_A = regA "amerikanisch" ; + } + + concrete MusicLexFre of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsFre in { + lin + song_N = regGenN "chanson" feminine ; + american_A = regA "américain" ; + } +\end{verbatim} +The top-level Music grammars are obtained by instantiating the two interfaces +of MusicI: + +\begin{verbatim} + concrete MusicGer of Music = MusicI with + (Grammar = GrammarGer), + (MusicLex = MusicLexGer) ; + + concrete MusicFre of Music = MusicI with + (Grammar = GrammarFre), + (MusicLex = MusicLexFre) ; +\end{verbatim} +To localize the system to a new language, all that is needed is two modules, +one implementing MusicLex and the other instantiating Music. The latter is +completely trivial, whereas the former one involves the choice of correct +vocabulary and inflectional paradigms. For instance, Finnish is added as follows: + +\begin{verbatim} + concrete MusicLexFin of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsFin in { + lin + song_N = regN "kappale" ; + american_A = regA "amerikkalainen" ; + } + + concrete MusicFin of Music = MusicI with + (Grammar = GrammarFin), + (MusicLex = MusicLexFin) ; +\end{verbatim} +More work is of course needed if the language-independent linearizations in +MusicI are not satisfactory for some language. The resource grammar guarantees +that the linearizations are possible in all languages, in the sense of grammatical, +but they might of course be inadequate for stylistic reasons. Assume, +for the sake of argument, that adjectival modification does not sound good in +English, but that a relative clause would be preferrable. One can then start as +before, + +\begin{verbatim} + concrete MusicLexEng of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsEng in { + lin + song_N = regN "song" ; + american_A = regA "American" ; + } + + concrete MusicEng0 of Music = MusicI with + (Grammar = GrammarEng), + (MusicLex = MusicLexEng) ; +\end{verbatim} +The module MusicEng0 would not be used on the top level, however, but +another module would be built on top of it, with a restricted import from +MusicEng0. MusicEng inherits everything from MusicEng0 except PropKind, and +gives its own definition of this function: + +\begin{verbatim} + concrete MusicEng of Music = MusicEng0 - [PropKind] ** open GrammarEng in { + lin + PropKind k p = + RelCN k (UseRCl TPres ASimul PPos (RelVP IdRP (UseComp (CompAP p)))) ; + } +\end{verbatim} + +\subsection{Parsing with resource grammars?} +The intended use of the resource grammar is as a library for writing +application grammars. It is not designed for e.g. parsing newspaper text. There +are several reasons why this is not so practical: + +\begin{itemize} +\item Efficiency: the resource grammar uses complex data structures, in +particular, discontinuous constituents, which make parsing slow and the +parser size huge. +\item Completeness: the resource grammar does not necessarily cover all rules +of the language - only enough many to be able to express everything +in one way or another. +\item Lexicon: the resource grammar has a very small lexicon, only meant for test +purposes. +\item Semantics: the resource grammar has very little semantic control, and may +accept strange input or deliver strange interpretations. +\item Ambiguity: parsing in the resource grammar may return lots of results many +of which are implausible. +\end{itemize} + +All of these problems should be solved in application grammars. +The task of resource grammars is just to take care of low-level linguistic +details such as inflection, agreement, and word order. + +For the same reasons, resource grammars are not adequate for parsing. +That the syntax API is implemented for different languages of course makes +it possible to translate via it - but there is no guarantee of translation +equivalence. Of course, the use of parametrized implementations such as MusicI +above only extends to those cases where the syntax API does give translation +equivalence - but this must be seen as a limiting case, and real applications +will often use only restricted inheritance of MusicI. + +\section{To find rules in the resource grammar library} +\subsection{Inflection paradigms} +Inflection paradigms are defined separately for each language L +in the module ParadigmsL. To test them, the command cc (= compute\_concrete) +can be used: + +\begin{verbatim} + > i -retain german/ParadigmsGer.gf + + > cc regN "Schlange" + { + s : Number => Case => Str = table Number { + Sg => table Case { + Nom => "Schlange" ; + Acc => "Schlange" ; + Dat => "Schlange" ; + Gen => "Schlange" + } ; + Pl => table Case { + Nom => "Schlangen" ; + Acc => "Schlangen" ; + Dat => "Schlangen" ; + Gen => "Schlangen" + } + } ; + g : Gender = Fem + } +\end{verbatim} +For the sake of convenience, every language implements these four paradigms: + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + regN : Str -> N ; -- regular nouns + regA : Str -> A : -- regular adjectives + regV : Str -> V ; -- regular verbs + dirV : V -> V2 ; -- direct transitive verbs +\end{verbatim} +It is often possible to initialize a lexicon by just using these functions, +and later revise it by using the more involved paradigms. For instance, in +German we cannot use regN "Lied" for Song, because the result would be a +Masculine noun with the plural form "Liede". The individual Paradigms modules +tell what cases are covered by the regular heuristics. + +As a limiting case, one could even initialize the lexicon for a new language +by copying the English (or some other already existing) lexicon. This will +produce language with correct grammar but content words directly borrowed from +English. + +\subsection{Syntax rules} +Syntax rules should be looked for in the abstract modules defining the +API. There are around 10 such modules, each defining constructors for +a group of one or more related categories. For instance, the module +Noun defines how to construct common nouns, noun phrases, and determiners. +Thus the proper place to find out how nouns are modified with adjectives +is Noun, because the result of the construction is again a common noun. + +Browsing the libraries is helped by the gfdoc-generated HTML pages. +However, this is still not easy, and the most efficient way is +probably to use the parser. +Even though parsing is not an intended end-user application +of resource grammars, it is a useful technique for application grammarians +to browse the library. To find out what resource function does some +particular job, you can just parse a string that exemplifies this job. For +instance, to find out how sentences are built using transitive verbs, write + +\begin{verbatim} + > i english/LangEng.gf + + > p -cat=Cl -fcfg "she loves him" + + PredVP (UsePron she_Pron) (ComplV2 love_V2 (UsePron he_Pron)) +\end{verbatim} +Parsing with the English resource grammar has an acceptable speed, but +with most languages it takes just too much resources even to build the +parser. However, examples parsed in one language can always be linearized into +other languages: + +\begin{verbatim} + > i italian/LangIta.gf + + > l PredVP (UsePron she_Pron) (ComplV2 love_V2 (UsePron he_Pron)) + + lo ama +\end{verbatim} +Therefore, one can use the English parser to write an Italian grammar, and also +to write a language-independent (incomplete) grammar. One can also parse strings +that are bizarre in English but the intended way of expression in another language. +For instance, the phrase for "I am hungry" in Italian is literally "I have hunger". +This can be built by parsing "I have beer" in LanEng and then writing + +\begin{verbatim} + lin IamHungry = + let beer_N = regGenN "fame" feminine + in + PredVP (UsePron i_Pron) (ComplV2 have_V2 + (DetCN (DetSg MassDet NoOrd) (UseN beer_N))) ; +\end{verbatim} +which uses ParadigmsIta.regGenN. + +\subsection{Example-based grammar writing} +The technique of parsing with the resource grammar can be used in GF source files, +endowed with the suffix .gfe ("GF examples"). The suffix tells GF to preprocess +the file by replacing all expressions of the form + +\begin{verbatim} + in Module.Cat "example string" +\end{verbatim} +by the syntax trees obtained by parsing "example string" in Cat in Module. +For instance, + +\begin{verbatim} + lin IamHungry = + let beer_N = regGenN "fame" feminine + in + (in LangEng.Cl "I have beer") ; +\end{verbatim} +will result in the rule displayed in the previous section. The normal binding rules +of functional programming (and GF) guarantee that local bindings of identifiers +take precedence over constants of the same forms. Thus it is also possible to +linearize functions taking arguments in this way: + +\begin{verbatim} + lin + PropKind car_N old_A = in LangEng.CN "old car" ; +\end{verbatim} +However, the technique of example-based grammar writing has some limitations: + +\begin{itemize} +\item Ambiguity. If a string has several parses, the first one is returned, and +it may not be the intended one. The other parses are shown in a comment, from +where they must/can be picked manually. +\item Lexicality. The arguments of a function must be atomic identifiers, and are thus +not available for categories that have no lexical items. For instance, the PropKind +rule above gives the result +\begin{verbatim} + lin + PropKind car_N old_A = AdjCN (UseN car_N) (PositA old_A) ; +\end{verbatim} +However, it is possible to write a special lexicon that gives atomic rules for +all those categories that can be used as arguments, for instance, +\begin{verbatim} + fun + cat_CN : CN ; + old_AP : AP ; +\end{verbatim} +and then use this lexicon instead of the standard one included in Lang. +\end{itemize} + +\subsection{Special-purpose APIs} +To give an analogy with a well-known type setting program, GF can be compared +with TeX and the resource grammar library with LaTeX. As TeX frees the author +from thinking about low-level problems of page layout, so GF frees the grammarian +from writing parsing and generation algorithms. But quite a lot of knowledge of +\textit{how} to write grammars is still needed, and the resource grammar library helps +GF grammarians in a way similar to how the LaTeX macro package helps TeX authors. + +But even LaTeX is often too detailed and low-level, and users are encouraged to +develop their own macro packages. The same applies to GF resource grammars: +the application grammarian might not need all the choises that the resource +provides, but would prefer less writing and higher-level programming. +To this end, application grammarians may want to write their own views on the +resource grammar. An example of this is already provided, in mathematical/Predication. +Instead of the NP-VP structure, it permits clause construction directly from +verbs and adjectives and their arguments: + +\begin{verbatim} + predV : V -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x converges" + predV2 : V2 -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x intersects y" + predV3 : V3 -> NP -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x intersects y at z" + predVColl : V -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x and y intersect" + predA : A -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x is even" + predA2 : A2 -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x is divisible by y" +\end{verbatim} +The implementation of this module is the functor PredicationI: + +\begin{verbatim} + predV v x = PredVP x (UseV v) ; + predV2 v x y = PredVP x (ComplV2 v y) ; + predV3 v x y z = PredVP x (ComplV3 v y z) ; + predVColl v x y = PredVP (ConjNP and_Conj (BaseNP x y)) (UseV v) ; + predA a x = PredVP x (UseComp (CompAP (PositA a))) ; + predA2 a x y = PredVP x (UseComp (CompAP (ComplA2 a y))) ; +\end{verbatim} +Of course, Predication can be opened together with Grammar, but using +the resulting grammar for parsing can be frustrating, since having both +ways of building clauses simultaneously available will produce spurious +ambiguities. Using Predication without Verb for parsing is a better idea, +since parsing is also made more efficient without the VP category. + +The use of special-purpose APIs is to some extent to be seen as an alternative +to grammar writing by parsing, and its importance may decrease as parsing +with the resource grammars gets more efficient. + +\section{Overview of syntactic structures} +\subsection{Texts. phrases, and utterances} +The outermost linguistic structure is Text. Texts are composed +from Phrases followed by punctuation marks - either of ".", "?" or +"!" (with their proper variants in Spanish and Arabic). Here is an +example of a Text. + +\begin{verbatim} + John walks. Why? He doesn't want to sleep! +\end{verbatim} +Phrases are mostly built from Utterances, which in turn are +declarative sentences, questions, or imperatives - but there +are also "one-word utterances" consisting of noun phrases +or other subsentential phrases. Some Phrases are atomic, +for instance "yes" and "no". Here are some examples of Phrases. + +\begin{verbatim} + yes + come on, John + but John walks + give me the stick please + don't you know that he is sleeping + a glass of wine + a glass of wine please +\end{verbatim} +There is no connection between the punctuation marks and the +types of utterances. This reflects the fact that the punctuation +mark in a real text is selected as a function of the speech act +rather than the grammatical form of an utterance. The following +text is thus well-formed. + +\begin{verbatim} + John walks. John walks? John walks! +\end{verbatim} +What is the difference between Phrase and Utterance? Just technical: +a Phrase is an Utterance with an optional leading conjunction ("but") +and an optional tailing vocative ("John", "please"). + +\subsection{Sentences and clauses} +The richest of the categories below Utterance is S, Sentence. A Sentence +is formed from a Clause, by fixing its Tense, Anteriority, and Polarity. +The difference between Sentence and Clause is thus also rather technical. +For example, each of the following strings has a distinct syntax tree +in the category Sentence: + +\begin{verbatim} + John walks + John doesn't walk + John walked + John didn't walk + John has walked + John hasn't walked + John will walk + John won't walk + ... +\end{verbatim} +whereas in the category Clause all of them are just different forms of +the same tree. + +The following syntax tree of the Text "John walks." gives an overview +of the structural levels. + +\begin{verbatim} +Node Constructor Value type Other constructors +----------------------------------------------------------- + 1. TFullStop Text TQuestMark + 2. (PhrUtt Phr + 3. NoPConj PConj but_PConj + 4. (UttS Utt UttQS + 5. (UseCl S UseQCl + 6. TPres Tense TPast + 7. ASimul Anter AAnter + 8. PPos Pol PNeg + 9. (PredVP Cl +10. (UsePN NP UsePron, DetCN +11. john_PN) PN mary_PN +12. (UseV VP ComplV2, ComplV3 +13. walk_V)))) V sleep_V +14. NoVoc) Voc please_Voc +15. TEmpty Text +\end{verbatim} +Here are some examples of the results of changing constructors. + +\begin{verbatim} + 1. TFullStop -> TQuestMark John walks? + 3. NoPConj -> but_PConj But John walks. + 6. TPres -> TPast John walked. + 7. ASimul -> AAnter John has walked. + 8. PPos -> PNeg John doesn't walk. +11. john_PN -> mary_PN Mary walks. +13. walk_V -> sleep_V John sleeps. +14. NoVoc -> please_Voc John sleeps please. +\end{verbatim} +All constructors cannot of course be changed so freely, because the +resulting tree would not remain well-typed. Here are some changes involving +many constructors: + +\begin{verbatim} + 4- 5. UttS (UseCl ...) -> + UttQS (UseQCl (... QuestCl ...)) Does John walk? +10-11. UsePN john_PN -> + UsePron we_Pron We walk. +12-13. UseV walk_V -> + ComplV2 love_V2 this_NP John loves this. +\end{verbatim} + +\subsection{Parts of sentences} +The linguistic phenomena mostly discussed in both traditional grammars and modern +syntax belong to the level of Clauses, that is, lines 9-13, and occasionally +to Sentences, lines 5-13. At this level, the major categories are +NP (Noun Phrase) and VP (Verb Phrase). A Clause typically consists of just an +NP and a VP. The internal structure of both NP and VP can be very complex, +and these categories are mutually recursive: not only can a VP contain an NP, + +\begin{verbatim} + [VP loves [NP Mary]] +\end{verbatim} +but an NP can also contain a VP + +\begin{verbatim} + [NP every man [RS who [VP walks]]] +\end{verbatim} +(a labelled bracketing like this is of course just a rough approximation of +a GF syntax tree, but still a useful device of exposition). + +Most of the resource modules thus define functions that are used inside +NPs and VPs. Here is a brief overview: + +Noun: How to construct NPs. The main three mechanisms +for constructing NPs are + +\begin{itemize} +\item from proper names: John +\item from pronouns: we +\item from common nouns by determiners: this man +\end{itemize} + +The Noun module also defines the construction of common nouns. The most frequent ways are + +\begin{itemize} +\item lexical noun items: man +\item adjectival modification: old man +\item relative clause modification: man who sleeps +\item application of relational nouns: successor of the number +\end{itemize} + +Verb: How to construct VPs. The main mechanism is verbs with their arguments, for instance, + +\begin{itemize} +\item one-place verbs: walks +\item two-place verbs: loves Mary +\item three-place verbs: gives her a kiss +\item sentence-complement verbs: says that it is cold +\item VP-complement verbs: wants to give her a kiss +\end{itemize} + +A special verb is the copula, "be" in English but not even realized +by a verb in all languages. +A copula can take different kinds of complement: + +\begin{itemize} +\item an adjectival phrase: (John is) old +\item an adverb: (John is) here +\item a noun phrase: (John is) a man +\end{itemize} + +Adjective: How to constuct APs. The main ways are + +\begin{itemize} +\item positive forms of adjectives: old +\item comparative forms with object of comparison: older than John +\end{itemize} + +Adverb: How to construct Advs. The main ways are + +\begin{itemize} +\item from adjectives: slowly +\end{itemize} + +\subsection{Modules and their names} +The resource modules are named after the kind of phrases that are constructed in them, +and they can be roughly classified by the "level" or "size" of expressions that are +formed in them: + +\begin{itemize} +\item Larger than sentence: Text, Phrase +\item Same level as sentence: Sentence, Question, Relative +\item Parts of sentence: Adjective, Adverb, Noun, Verb +\item Cross-cut: Conjunction +\end{itemize} + +Because of mutual recursion such as in embedded sentences, this classification is +not a complete order. However, no mutual dependence is needed between the +modules in a formal sense - they can all be compiled separately. This is due +to the module Cat, which defines the type system common to the other modules. +For instance, the types NP and VP are defined in Cat, and the module Verb only +needs to know what is given in Cat, not what is given in Noun. To implement +a rule such as + +\begin{verbatim} + Verb.ComplV2 : V2 -> NP -> VP +\end{verbatim} +it is enough to know the linearization type of NP (as well as those of V2 and VP, all +given in Cat). It is not necessary to know what +ways there are to build NPs (given in Noun), since all these ways must +conform to the linearization type defined in Cat. Thus the format of +category-specific modules is as follows: + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Adjective = Cat ** {...} + abstract Noun = Cat ** {...} + abstract Verb = Cat ** {...} +\end{verbatim} + +\subsection{Top-level grammar and lexicon} +The module Grammar collects all the category-specific modules into +a complete grammar: + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Grammar = + Adjective, Noun, Verb, ..., Structural, Idiom +\end{verbatim} +The module Structural is a lexicon of structural words (function words), +such as determiners. +The module Idiom is a collection of idiomatic structures whose +implementation is very language-dependent. An example is existential +structures ("there is", "es gibt", "il y a", etc). + +The module Lang combines Grammar with a Lexicon of ca. 350 content words: + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Lang = Grammar, Lexicon +\end{verbatim} +Using Lang instead of Grammar as a library may give the advantage of prociding +for free some words needed in an application. But its main purpose is to +help testing the resource library. It does not seem possible to maintain +a general-purpose multilingual lexicon, and this is the form that the module +Lexicon has. + +\subsection{Language-specific syntactic structures} +The API collected in Grammar has been designed to be implementable for +all languages in the resource package. It does contain some rules that +are strange or superfluous in some languages; for instance, the distinction +between definite and indefinite articles does not apply to Finnish and Russian. +But such rules are still easy to implement: they only create some superfluous +ambiguity in the languages in question. + +But the library makes no claim that all languages should have exactly the same +abstract syntax. The common API is therefore extended by language-dependent +rules. The top level of each languages looks as follows (with English as example): + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract English = Grammar, ExtraEngAbs, DictEngAbs +\end{verbatim} +where ExtraEngAbs is a collection of syntactic structures specific to English, +and DictEngAbs is an English dictionary (at the moment, it consists of IrregEngAbs, +the irregular verbs of English). Each of these language-specific grammars has +the potential to grow into a full-scale grammar of the language. These grammar +can also be used as libraries, but the possibility of using functors is lost. + +To give a better overview of language-specific structures, modules like ExtraEngAbs +are built from a language-independent module ExtraAbs by restricted inheritance: + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract ExtraEngAbs = Extra [f,g,...] +\end{verbatim} +Thus any category and function in Extra may be shared by a subset of all +languages. One can see this set-up as a matrix, which tells what Extra structures +are implemented in what languages. For the common API in Grammar, the matrix +is filled with 1's (everything is implemented in every language). + +Language-specific extensions and the use of restricted +inheritance is a recent addition to the resource grammar library, and +has only been exploited in a very small scale so far. + +\section{API Documentation} +\subsection{Top-level modules} + +\subsubsection{Grammar} +This grammar a collection of the different grammar modules, +To test the resource, import \htmladdnormallink{Lang}{Lang.html}, which also contains +a lexicon. + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Grammar = + Noun, + Verb, + Adjective, + Adverb, + Numeral, + Sentence, + Question, + Relative, + Conjunction, + Phrase, + Text, + Structural, + Idiom + ** {} ; +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Grammar with lexicon} +This grammar is just a collection of the different modules, +and the one that can be imported when one wants to test the +grammar. A module without a lexicon is \htmladdnormallink{Grammar}{Grammar.html}, +which may be more suitable to open in applications. + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Lang = + Grammar, + Lexicon + ** {} ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsection{Type system} +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{The category system} +The category system is central to the library in the sense +that the other modules (\texttt{Adjective}, \texttt{Adverb}, \texttt{Noun}, \texttt{Verb} etc) +communicate through it. This means that a e.g. a function using +\texttt{NP}s in \texttt{Verb} need not know how \texttt{NP}s are constructed in \texttt{Noun}: +it is enough that both \texttt{Verb} and \texttt{Noun} use the same type \texttt{NP}, +which is given here in \texttt{Cat}. + +Some categories are inherited from \htmladdnormallink{Common}{Common.html}. +The reason they are defined there is that they have the same +implementation in all languages in the resource (typically, +just a string). These categories are +\texttt{AdA, AdN, AdV, Adv, Ant, CAdv, IAdv, PConj, Phr}, +\texttt{Pol, SC, Tense, Text, Utt, Voc}. + +Moreover, the list categories \texttt{ListAdv, ListAP, ListNP, ListS} +are defined on \texttt{Conjunction} and only used locally there. + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Cat = Common ** { + + cat +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Sentences and clauses} +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Sentence}{Sentence.html}, and also in +\htmladdnormallink{Idiom}{Idiom.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + S ; -- declarative sentence e.g. "she lived here" + QS ; -- question e.g. "where did she live" + RS ; -- relative e.g. "in which she lived" + Cl ; -- declarative clause, with all tenses e.g. "she looks at this" + Slash ; -- clause missing NP (S/NP in GPSG) e.g. "she looks at" + Imp ; -- imperative e.g. "look at this" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Questions and interrogatives} +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Question}{Question.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + QCl ; -- question clause, with all tenses e.g. "why does she walk" + IP ; -- interrogative pronoun e.g. "who" + IComp ; -- interrogative complement of copula e.g. "where" + IDet ; -- interrogative determiner e.g. "which" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relative clauses and pronouns} +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Relative}{Relative.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + RCl ; -- relative clause, with all tenses e.g. "in which she lives" + RP ; -- relative pronoun e.g. "in which" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verb phrases} +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Verb}{Verb.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + VP ; -- verb phrase e.g. "is very warm" + Comp ; -- complement of copula, such as AP e.g. "very warm" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectival phrases} +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Adjective}{Adjective.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + AP ; -- adjectival phrase e.g. "very warm" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns and noun phrases} +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Noun}{Noun.html}. +Many atomic noun phrases e.g. \textit{everybody} +are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. +The determiner structure is + +\begin{verbatim} +Predet (QuantSg | QuantPl Num) Ord +\end{verbatim} +as defined in \htmladdnormallink{Noun}{Noun.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + CN ; -- common noun (without determiner) e.g. "red house" + NP ; -- noun phrase (subject or object) e.g. "the red house" + Pron ; -- personal pronoun e.g. "she" + Det ; -- determiner phrase e.g. "all the seven" + Predet; -- predeterminer (prefixed Quant) e.g. "all" + QuantSg;-- quantifier ('nucleus' of sing. Det) e.g. "every" + QuantPl;-- quantifier ('nucleus' of plur. Det) e.g. "many" + Quant ; -- quantifier with both sg and pl e.g. "this/these" + Num ; -- cardinal number (used with QuantPl) e.g. "seven" + Ord ; -- ordinal number (used in Det) e.g. "seventh" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Numerals} +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Numeral}{Numeral.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + Numeral;-- cardinal or ordinal, e.g. "five/fifth" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Structural words} +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + Conj ; -- conjunction, e.g. "and" + DConj ; -- distributed conj. e.g. "both - and" + Subj ; -- subjunction, e.g. "if" + Prep ; -- preposition, or just case e.g. "in" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Words of open classes} +These are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Lexicon}{Lexicon.html} and in +additional lexicon modules. + +\begin{verbatim} + V ; -- one-place verb e.g. "sleep" + V2 ; -- two-place verb e.g. "love" + V3 ; -- three-place verb e.g. "show" + VV ; -- verb-phrase-complement verb e.g. "want" + VS ; -- sentence-complement verb e.g. "claim" + VQ ; -- question-complement verb e.g. "ask" + VA ; -- adjective-complement verb e.g. "look" + V2A ; -- verb with NP and AP complement e.g. "paint" + + A ; -- one-place adjective e.g. "warm" + A2 ; -- two-place adjective e.g. "divisible" + + N ; -- common noun e.g. "house" + N2 ; -- relational noun e.g. "son" + N3 ; -- three-place relational noun e.g. "connection" + PN ; -- proper name e.g. "Paris" + + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Infrastructure with common implementations.} +This module defines the categories that uniformly have the linearization +\texttt{\{s : Str\}} in all languages. +Moreover, this module defines the abstract parameters of tense, polarity, and +anteriority, which are used in \htmladdnormallink{Phrase}{Phrase.html} to generate different +forms of sentences. Together they give 2 x 4 x 4 = 16 sentence forms. +These tenses are defined for all languages in the library. More tenses +can be defined in the language extensions, e.g. the \textit{passé simple} of +Romance languages. + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Common = { + + cat +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Top-level units} +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Text}{Text.html}: \texttt{Text}. + +\begin{verbatim} + Text ; -- text consisting of several phrases e.g. "He is here. Why?" +\end{verbatim} + +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Phrase}{Phrase.html}: + +\begin{verbatim} + Phr ; -- phrase in a text e.g. "but be quiet please" + Utt ; -- sentence, question, word... e.g. "be quiet" + Voc ; -- vocative or "please" e.g. "my darling" + PConj ; -- phrase-beginning conj. e.g. "therefore" +\end{verbatim} + +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Sentence}{Sentence.html}: + +\begin{verbatim} + SC ; -- embedded sentence or question e.g. "that it rains" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} +Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Adverb}{Adverb.html}. +Many adverbs are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + Adv ; -- verb-phrase-modifying adverb, e.g. "in the house" + AdV ; -- adverb directly attached to verb e.g. "always" + AdA ; -- adjective-modifying adverb, e.g. "very" + AdN ; -- numeral-modifying adverb, e.g. "more than" + IAdv ; -- interrogative adverb e.g. "why" + CAdv ; -- comparative adverb e.g. "more" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Tense, polarity, and anteriority} +\begin{verbatim} + Tense ; -- tense: present, past, future, conditional + Pol ; -- polarity: positive, negative + Ant ; -- anteriority: simultaneous, anterior + + fun + PPos, PNeg : Pol ; -- I sleep/don't sleep + + TPres : Tense ; + ASimul : Ant ; + TPast, TFut, TCond : Tense ; -- I slept/will sleep/would sleep --# notpresent + AAnter : Ant ; -- I have slept --# notpresent + + } +\end{verbatim} + +\subsection{Phrase category modules} +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Adjectives and adjectival phrases} +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Adjective = Cat ** { + + fun +\end{verbatim} + +The principal ways of forming an adjectival phrase are +positive, comparative, relational, reflexive-relational, and +elliptic-relational. +(The superlative use is covered in \htmladdnormallink{Noun}{Noun.html}.\texttt{SuperlA}.) + +\begin{verbatim} + PositA : A -> AP ; -- warm + ComparA : A -> NP -> AP ; -- warmer than Spain + ComplA2 : A2 -> NP -> AP ; -- divisible by 2 + ReflA2 : A2 -> AP ; -- divisible by itself + UseA2 : A2 -> A ; -- divisible +\end{verbatim} + +Sentence and question complements defined for all adjectival +phrases, although the semantics is only clear for some adjective. + +\begin{verbatim} + SentAP : AP -> SC -> AP ; -- great that she won, uncertain if she did +\end{verbatim} + +An adjectival phrase can be modified by an \textbf{adadjective}, such as \textit{very}. + +\begin{verbatim} + AdAP : AdA -> AP -> AP ; -- very uncertain +\end{verbatim} + +The formation of adverbs from adjective (e.g. \textit{quickly}) is covered +by \htmladdnormallink{Adverb}{Adverb.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Adverbs and adverbial phrases} +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Adverb = Cat ** { + + fun +\end{verbatim} + +The two main ways of forming adverbs are from adjectives and by +prepositions from noun phrases. + +\begin{verbatim} + PositAdvAdj : A -> Adv ; -- quickly + PrepNP : Prep -> NP -> Adv ; -- in the house +\end{verbatim} + +Comparative adverbs have a noun phrase or a sentence as object of +comparison. + +\begin{verbatim} + ComparAdvAdj : CAdv -> A -> NP -> Adv ; -- more quickly than John + ComparAdvAdjS : CAdv -> A -> S -> Adv ; -- more quickly than he runs +\end{verbatim} + +Adverbs can be modified by 'adadjectives', just like adjectives. + +\begin{verbatim} + AdAdv : AdA -> Adv -> Adv ; -- very quickly +\end{verbatim} + +Subordinate clauses can function as adverbs. + +\begin{verbatim} + SubjS : Subj -> S -> Adv ; -- when he arrives + AdvSC : SC -> Adv ; -- that he arrives ---- REMOVE? +\end{verbatim} + +Comparison adverbs also work as numeral adverbs. + +\begin{verbatim} + AdnCAdv : CAdv -> AdN ; -- more (than five) + + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Coordination} +Coordination is defined for many different categories; here is +a sample. The rules apply to \textbf{lists} of two or more elements, +and define two general patterns: + +\begin{itemize} +\item ordinary conjunction: X,...X and X +\item distributed conjunction: both X,...,X and X +\end{itemize} + +\textbf{Note}. This module uses right-recursive lists. If backward +compatibility with API 0.9 is needed, use +\htmladdnormallink{SeqConjunction}{SeqConjunction.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Conjunction = Cat ** { +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Rules} +\begin{verbatim} + fun + ConjS : Conj -> [S] -> S ; -- "John walks and Mary runs" + ConjAP : Conj -> [AP] -> AP ; -- "even and prime" + ConjNP : Conj -> [NP] -> NP ; -- "John or Mary" + ConjAdv : Conj -> [Adv] -> Adv ; -- "quickly or slowly" + + DConjS : DConj -> [S] -> S ; -- "either John walks or Mary runs" + DConjAP : DConj -> [AP] -> AP ; -- "both even and prime" + DConjNP : DConj -> [NP] -> NP ; -- "either John or Mary" + DConjAdv : DConj -> [Adv] -> Adv; -- "both badly and slowly" +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Categories} +These categories are only used in this module. + +\begin{verbatim} + cat + [S]{2} ; + [Adv]{2} ; + [NP]{2} ; + [AP]{2} ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{List constructors} +The list constructors are derived from the list notation and therefore +not given explicitly. But here are their type signatures: + +\begin{verbatim} + -- BaseC : C -> C -> [C] ; -- for C = S, AP, NP, Adv + -- ConsC : C -> [C] -> [C] ; + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Idiomatic expressions} +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Idiom = Cat ** { +\end{verbatim} + +This module defines constructions that are formed in fixed ways, +often different even in closely related languages. + +\begin{verbatim} + fun + ImpersCl : VP -> Cl ; -- it rains + GenericCl : VP -> Cl ; -- one sleeps + + CleftNP : NP -> RS -> Cl ; -- it is you who did it + CleftAdv : Adv -> S -> Cl ; -- it is yesterday she arrived + + ExistNP : NP -> Cl ; -- there is a house + ExistIP : IP -> QCl ; -- which houses are there + + ProgrVP : VP -> VP ; -- be sleeping + + ImpPl1 : VP -> Utt ; -- let's go + + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{The construction of nouns, noun phrases, and determiners} +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Noun = Cat ** { +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Noun phrases} +The three main types of noun phrases are + +\begin{itemize} +\item common nouns with determiners +\item proper names +\item pronouns +\end{itemize} + +\begin{verbatim} + fun + DetCN : Det -> CN -> NP ; -- the man + UsePN : PN -> NP ; -- John + UsePron : Pron -> NP ; -- he +\end{verbatim} + +Pronouns are defined in the module \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. +A noun phrase already formed can be modified by a \texttt{Predet}erminer. + +\begin{verbatim} + PredetNP : Predet -> NP -> NP; -- only the man +\end{verbatim} + +A noun phrase can also be postmodified by the past participle of a +verb or by an adverb. + +\begin{verbatim} + PPartNP : NP -> V2 -> NP ; -- the number squared + AdvNP : NP -> Adv -> NP ; -- Paris at midnight +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Determiners} +The determiner has a fine-grained structure, in which a 'nucleus' +quantifier and two optional parts can be discerned. +The cardinal numeral is only available for plural determiners. +(This is modified from CLE by further dividing their \texttt{Num} into +cardinal and ordinal.) + +\begin{verbatim} + DetSg : QuantSg -> Ord -> Det ; -- this best man + DetPl : QuantPl -> Num -> Ord -> Det ; -- these five best men +\end{verbatim} + +Quantifiers that have both forms can be used in both ways. + +\begin{verbatim} + SgQuant : Quant -> QuantSg ; -- this + PlQuant : Quant -> QuantPl ; -- these +\end{verbatim} + +Pronouns have possessive forms. Genitives of other kinds +of noun phrases are not given here, since they are not possible +in e.g. Romance languages. + +\begin{verbatim} + PossPron : Pron -> Quant ; -- my (house) +\end{verbatim} + +All parts of the determiner can be empty, except \texttt{Quant}, which is +the \textit{kernel} of a determiner. + +\begin{verbatim} + NoNum : Num ; + NoOrd : Ord ; +\end{verbatim} + +\texttt{Num} consists of either digits or numeral words. + +\begin{verbatim} + NumInt : Int -> Num ; -- 51 + NumNumeral : Numeral -> Num ; -- fifty-one +\end{verbatim} + +The construction of numerals is defined in \htmladdnormallink{Numeral}{Numeral.html}. +\texttt{Num} can be modified by certain adverbs. + +\begin{verbatim} + AdNum : AdN -> Num -> Num ; -- almost 51 +\end{verbatim} + +\texttt{Ord} consists of either digits or numeral words. + +\begin{verbatim} + OrdInt : Int -> Ord ; -- 51st + OrdNumeral : Numeral -> Ord ; -- fifty-first +\end{verbatim} + +Superlative forms of adjectives behave syntactically in the same way as +ordinals. + +\begin{verbatim} + OrdSuperl : A -> Ord ; -- largest +\end{verbatim} + +Definite and indefinite constructions are sometimes realized as +neatly distinct words (Spanish \textit{un, unos ; el, los}) but also without +any particular word (Finnish; Swedish definites). + +\begin{verbatim} + DefArt : Quant ; -- the (house), the (houses) + IndefArt : Quant ; -- a (house), (houses) +\end{verbatim} + +Nouns can be used without an article as mass nouns. The resource does +not distinguish mass nouns from other common nouns, which can result +in semantically odd expressions. + +\begin{verbatim} + MassDet : QuantSg ; -- (beer) +\end{verbatim} + +Other determiners are defined in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. + +\subsubsubsection{Common nouns} +Simple nouns can be used as nouns outright. + +\begin{verbatim} + UseN : N -> CN ; -- house +\end{verbatim} + +Relational nouns take one or two arguments. + +\begin{verbatim} + ComplN2 : N2 -> NP -> CN ; -- son of the king + ComplN3 : N3 -> NP -> N2 ; -- flight from Moscow (to Paris) +\end{verbatim} + +Relational nouns can also be used without their arguments. +The semantics is typically derivative of the relational meaning. + +\begin{verbatim} + UseN2 : N2 -> CN ; -- son + UseN3 : N3 -> CN ; -- flight +\end{verbatim} + +Nouns can be modified by adjectives, relative clauses, and adverbs +(the last rule will give rise to many 'PP attachement' ambiguities +when used in connection with verb phrases). + +\begin{verbatim} + AdjCN : AP -> CN -> CN ; -- big house + RelCN : CN -> RS -> CN ; -- house that John owns + AdvCN : CN -> Adv -> CN ; -- house on the hill +\end{verbatim} + +Nouns can also be modified by embedded sentences and questions. +For some nouns this makes little sense, but we leave this for applications +to decide. Sentential complements are defined in \htmladdnormallink{Verb}{Verb.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + SentCN : CN -> SC -> CN ; -- fact that John smokes, question if he does +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Apposition} +This is certainly overgenerating. + +\begin{verbatim} + ApposCN : CN -> NP -> CN ; -- number x, numbers x and y + + } ; +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Numerals} +This grammar defines numerals from 1 to 999999. +The implementations are adapted from the +\htmladdnormallink{numerals library}{http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~aarne/GF/examples/numerals/} +which defines numerals for 88 languages. +The resource grammar implementations add to this inflection (if needed) +and ordinal numbers. +\textbf{Note}. Number 1 as defined +in the category \texttt{Numeral} here should not be used in the formation of +noun phrases, and should therefore be removed. Instead, one should use +\htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}\texttt{.one\_Quant}. This makes the grammar simpler +because we can assume that numbers form plural noun phrases. + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Numeral = Cat ** { + + cat + Digit ; -- 2..9 + Sub10 ; -- 1..9 + Sub100 ; -- 1..99 + Sub1000 ; -- 1..999 + Sub1000000 ; -- 1..999999 + + fun + num : Sub1000000 -> Numeral ; + + n2, n3, n4, n5, n6, n7, n8, n9 : Digit ; + + pot01 : Sub10 ; -- 1 + pot0 : Digit -> Sub10 ; -- d * 1 + pot110 : Sub100 ; -- 10 + pot111 : Sub100 ; -- 11 + pot1to19 : Digit -> Sub100 ; -- 10 + d + pot0as1 : Sub10 -> Sub100 ; -- coercion of 1..9 + pot1 : Digit -> Sub100 ; -- d * 10 + pot1plus : Digit -> Sub10 -> Sub100 ; -- d * 10 + n + pot1as2 : Sub100 -> Sub1000 ; -- coercion of 1..99 + pot2 : Sub10 -> Sub1000 ; -- m * 100 + pot2plus : Sub10 -> Sub100 -> Sub1000 ; -- m * 100 + n + pot2as3 : Sub1000 -> Sub1000000 ; -- coercion of 1..999 + pot3 : Sub1000 -> Sub1000000 ; -- m * 1000 + pot3plus : Sub1000 -> Sub1000 -> Sub1000000 ; -- m * 1000 + n + + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Phrases and utterances} +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Phrase = Cat ** { +\end{verbatim} + +When a phrase is built from an utterance it can be prefixed +with a phrasal conjunction (such as \textit{but}, \textit{therefore}) +and suffixing with a vocative (typically a noun phrase). + +\begin{verbatim} + fun + PhrUtt : PConj -> Utt -> Voc -> Phr ; -- But go home my friend. +\end{verbatim} + +Utterances are formed from sentences, questions, and imperatives. + +\begin{verbatim} + UttS : S -> Utt ; -- John walks + UttQS : QS -> Utt ; -- is it good + UttImpSg : Pol -> Imp -> Utt; -- (don't) help yourself + UttImpPl : Pol -> Imp -> Utt; -- (don't) help yourselves +\end{verbatim} + +There are also 'one-word utterances'. A typical use of them is +as answers to questions. +\textbf{Note}. This list is incomplete. More categories could be covered. +Moreover, in many languages e.g. noun phrases in different cases +can be used. + +\begin{verbatim} + UttIP : IP -> Utt ; -- who + UttIAdv : IAdv -> Utt ; -- why + UttNP : NP -> Utt ; -- this man + UttAdv : Adv -> Utt ; -- here + UttVP : VP -> Utt ; -- to sleep +\end{verbatim} + +The phrasal conjunction is optional. A sentence conjunction +can also used to prefix an utterance. + +\begin{verbatim} + NoPConj : PConj ; + PConjConj : Conj -> PConj ; -- and +\end{verbatim} + +The vocative is optional. Any noun phrase can be made into vocative, +which may be overgenerating (e.g. \textit{I}). + +\begin{verbatim} + NoVoc : Voc ; + VocNP : NP -> Voc ; -- my friend + + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Questions and interrogative pronouns} +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Question = Cat ** { +\end{verbatim} + +A question can be formed from a clause ('yes-no question') or +with an interrogative. + +\begin{verbatim} + fun + QuestCl : Cl -> QCl ; -- does John walk + QuestVP : IP -> VP -> QCl ; -- who walks + QuestSlash : IP -> Slash -> QCl ; -- who does John love + QuestIAdv : IAdv -> Cl -> QCl ; -- why does John walk + QuestIComp : IComp -> NP -> QCl ; -- where is John +\end{verbatim} + +Interrogative pronouns can be formed with interrogative +determiners. + +\begin{verbatim} + IDetCN : IDet -> Num -> Ord -> CN -> IP; -- which five best songs + AdvIP : IP -> Adv -> IP ; -- who in Europe + + PrepIP : Prep -> IP -> IAdv ; -- with whom + + CompIAdv : IAdv -> IComp ; -- where +\end{verbatim} + +More \texttt{IP}, \texttt{IDet}, and \texttt{IAdv} are defined in +\htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Relative clauses and pronouns} +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Relative = Cat ** { + + fun +\end{verbatim} + +The simplest way to form a relative clause is from a clause by +a pronoun similar to \textit{such that}. + +\begin{verbatim} + RelCl : Cl -> RCl ; -- such that John loves her +\end{verbatim} + +The more proper ways are from a verb phrase (formed in \htmladdnormallink{Verb}{Verb.html}) +or a sentence with a missing noun phrase (formed in \htmladdnormallink{Sentence}{Sentence.html}). + +\begin{verbatim} + RelVP : RP -> VP -> RCl ; -- who loves John + RelSlash : RP -> Slash -> RCl ; -- whom John loves +\end{verbatim} + +Relative pronouns are formed from an 'identity element' by prefixing +or suffixing (depending on language) prepositional phrases. + +\begin{verbatim} + IdRP : RP ; -- which + FunRP : Prep -> NP -> RP -> RP ; -- all the roots of which + + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Sentences, clauses, imperatives, and sentential complements} +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Sentence = Cat ** { +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Clauses} +The \texttt{NP VP} predication rule form a clause whose linearization +gives a table of all tense variants, positive and negative. +Clauses are converted to \texttt{S} (with fixed tense) in \htmladdnormallink{Tensed}{Tensed.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + fun + PredVP : NP -> VP -> Cl ; -- John walks +\end{verbatim} + +Using an embedded sentence as a subject is treated separately. +This can be overgenerating. E.g. \textit{whether you go} as subject +is only meaningful for some verb phrases. + +\begin{verbatim} + PredSCVP : SC -> VP -> Cl ; -- that you go makes me happy +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Clauses missing object noun phrases} +This category is a variant of the 'slash category' \texttt{S/NP} of +GPSG and categorial grammars, which in turn replaces +movement transformations in the formation of questions +and relative clauses. Except \texttt{SlashV2}, the construction +rules can be seen as special cases of function composition, in +the style of CCG. +\textbf{Note} the set is not complete and lacks e.g. verbs with more than 2 places. + +\begin{verbatim} + SlashV2 : NP -> V2 -> Slash ; -- (whom) he sees + SlashVVV2 : NP -> VV -> V2 -> Slash; -- (whom) he wants to see + AdvSlash : Slash -> Adv -> Slash ; -- (whom) he sees tomorrow + SlashPrep : Cl -> Prep -> Slash ; -- (with whom) he walks +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Imperatives} +An imperative is straightforwardly formed from a verb phrase. +It has variation over positive and negative, singular and plural. +To fix these parameters, see \htmladdnormallink{Phrase}{Phrase.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + ImpVP : VP -> Imp ; -- go +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Embedded sentences} +Sentences, questions, and infinitival phrases can be used as +subjects and (adverbial) complements. + +\begin{verbatim} + EmbedS : S -> SC ; -- that you go + EmbedQS : QS -> SC ; -- whether you go + EmbedVP : VP -> SC ; -- to go +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Sentences} +These are the 2 x 4 x 4 = 16 forms generated by different +combinations of tense, polarity, and +anteriority, which are defined in \htmladdnormallink{Tense}{Tense.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + fun + UseCl : Tense -> Ant -> Pol -> Cl -> S ; + UseQCl : Tense -> Ant -> Pol -> QCl -> QS ; + UseRCl : Tense -> Ant -> Pol -> RCl -> RS ; + + } +\end{verbatim} + +Examples for English \texttt{S}/\texttt{Cl}: + +Pres Simul Pos ODir : he sleeps +Pres Simul Neg ODir : he doesn't sleep +Pres Anter Pos ODir : he has slept +Pres Anter Neg ODir : he hasn't slept +Past Simul Pos ODir : he slept +Past Simul Neg ODir : he didn't sleep +Past Anter Pos ODir : he had slept +Past Anter Neg ODir : he hadn't slept +Fut Simul Pos ODir : he will sleep +Fut Simul Neg ODir : he won't sleep +Fut Anter Pos ODir : he will have slept +Fut Anter Neg ODir : he won't have slept +Cond Simul Pos ODir : he would sleep +Cond Simul Neg ODir : he wouldn't sleep +Cond Anter Pos ODir : he would have slept +Cond Anter Neg ODir : he wouldn't have slept +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Structural Words} + +Here we have some words belonging to closed classes and appearing +in all languages we have considered. +Sometimes they are not really meaningful, e.g. \texttt{we\_Pron} in Spanish +should be replaced by masculine and feminine variants. + +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Structural = Cat ** { + + fun +\end{verbatim} + +This is an alphabetical list of structural words + +\begin{verbatim} + above_Prep : Prep ; + after_Prep : Prep ; + all_Predet : Predet ; + almost_AdA : AdA ; + almost_AdN : AdN ; + although_Subj : Subj ; + always_AdV : AdV ; + and_Conj : Conj ; + because_Subj : Subj ; + before_Prep : Prep ; + behind_Prep : Prep ; + between_Prep : Prep ; + both7and_DConj : DConj ; + but_PConj : PConj ; + by8agent_Prep : Prep ; + by8means_Prep : Prep ; + can8know_VV : VV ; + can_VV : VV ; + during_Prep : Prep ; + either7or_DConj : DConj ; + every_Det : Det ; + everybody_NP : NP ; + everything_NP : NP ; + everywhere_Adv : Adv ; + first_Ord : Ord ; + few_Det : Det ; + from_Prep : Prep ; + he_Pron : Pron ; + here_Adv : Adv ; + here7to_Adv : Adv ; + here7from_Adv : Adv ; + how_IAdv : IAdv ; + how8many_IDet : IDet ; + i_Pron : Pron ; + if_Subj : Subj ; + in8front_Prep : Prep ; + in_Prep : Prep ; + it_Pron : Pron ; + less_CAdv : CAdv ; + many_Det : Det ; + more_CAdv : CAdv ; + most_Predet : Predet ; + much_Det : Det ; + must_VV : VV ; + no_Phr : Phr ; + on_Prep : Prep ; + one_Quant : QuantSg ; + only_Predet : Predet ; + or_Conj : Conj ; + otherwise_PConj : PConj ; + part_Prep : Prep ; + please_Voc : Voc ; + possess_Prep : Prep ; + quite_Adv : AdA ; + she_Pron : Pron ; + so_AdA : AdA ; + someSg_Det : Det ; + somePl_Det : Det ; + somebody_NP : NP ; + something_NP : NP ; + somewhere_Adv : Adv ; + that_Quant : Quant ; + that_NP : NP ; + there_Adv : Adv ; + there7to_Adv : Adv ; + there7from_Adv : Adv ; + therefore_PConj : PConj ; + these_NP : NP ; + they_Pron : Pron ; + this_Quant : Quant ; + this_NP : NP ; + those_NP : NP ; + through_Prep : Prep ; + to_Prep : Prep ; + too_AdA : AdA ; + under_Prep : Prep ; + very_AdA : AdA ; + want_VV : VV ; + we_Pron : Pron ; + whatPl_IP : IP ; + whatSg_IP : IP ; + when_IAdv : IAdv ; + when_Subj : Subj ; + where_IAdv : IAdv ; + whichPl_IDet : IDet ; + whichSg_IDet : IDet ; + whoPl_IP : IP ; + whoSg_IP : IP ; + why_IAdv : IAdv ; + with_Prep : Prep ; + without_Prep : Prep ; + yes_Phr : Phr ; + youSg_Pron : Pron ; + youPl_Pron : Pron ; + youPol_Pron : Pron ; + + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{Texts} +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Text = Common ** { + + fun + TEmpty : Text ; + TFullStop : Phr -> Text -> Text ; + TQuestMark : Phr -> Text -> Text ; + TExclMark : Phr -> Text -> Text ; + + } +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + + +\subsubsection{The construction of verb phrases} +\begin{verbatim} + abstract Verb = Cat ** { +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Complementization rules} +Verb phrases are constructed from verbs by providing their +complements. There is one rule for each verb category. + +\begin{verbatim} + fun + UseV : V -> VP ; -- sleep + ComplV2 : V2 -> NP -> VP ; -- use it + ComplV3 : V3 -> NP -> NP -> VP ; -- send a message to her + + ComplVV : VV -> VP -> VP ; -- want to run + ComplVS : VS -> S -> VP ; -- know that she runs + ComplVQ : VQ -> QS -> VP ; -- ask if she runs + + ComplVA : VA -> AP -> VP ; -- look red + ComplV2A : V2A -> NP -> AP -> VP ; -- paint the house red +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Other ways of forming verb phrases} +Verb phrases can also be constructed reflexively and from +copula-preceded complements. + +\begin{verbatim} + ReflV2 : V2 -> VP ; -- use itself + UseComp : Comp -> VP ; -- be warm +\end{verbatim} + +Passivization of two-place verbs is another way to use +them. In many languages, the result is a participle that +is used as complement to a copula (\textit{is used}), but other +auxiliary verbs are possible (Ger. \textit{wird angewendet}, It. +\textit{viene usato}), as well as special verb forms (Fin. \textit{käytetään}, +Swe. \textit{används}). + +\textbf{Note}. the rule can be overgenerating, since the \texttt{V2} need not +take a direct object. + +\begin{verbatim} + PassV2 : V2 -> VP ; -- be used +\end{verbatim} + +Adverbs can be added to verb phrases. Many languages make +a distinction between adverbs that are attached in the end +vs. next to (or before) the verb. + +\begin{verbatim} + AdvVP : VP -> Adv -> VP ; -- sleep here + AdVVP : AdV -> VP -> VP ; -- always sleep +\end{verbatim} + +\textbf{Agents of passives} are constructed as adverbs with the +preposition \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}\texttt{.8agent\_Prep}. + +\subsubsubsection{Complements to copula} +Adjectival phrases, noun phrases, and adverbs can be used. + +\begin{verbatim} + CompAP : AP -> Comp ; -- (be) small + CompNP : NP -> Comp ; -- (be) a soldier + CompAdv : Adv -> Comp ; -- (be) here +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Coercions} +Verbs can change subcategorization patterns in systematic ways, +but this is very much language-dependent. The following two +work in all the languages we cover. + +\begin{verbatim} + UseVQ : VQ -> V2 ; -- ask (a question) + UseVS : VS -> V2 ; -- know (a secret) + + } +\end{verbatim} + +\subsection{Inflectional paradigms} +Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006 + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + +== + +\# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude + + +\subsubsection{Danish Lexical Paradigms} +Aarne Ranta 2003 + +This is an API to the user of the resource grammar +for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming +expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. + +Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are +accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. + +The main difference with \texttt{MorphoDan.gf} is that the types +referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover +had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather +than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. + +The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: +first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all +regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an +escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. +However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a +separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected +words. + +\begin{verbatim} + resource ParadigmsDan = + open + (Predef=Predef), + Prelude, + CommonScand, + ResDan, + MorphoDan, + CatDan in { +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Parameters} +To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + Gender : Type ; + + utrum : Gender ; + neutrum : Gender ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over number names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Number : Type ; + + singular : Number ; + plural : Number ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over case names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Case : Type ; + + nominative : Case ; + genitive : Case ; +\end{verbatim} + +Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings. + +\begin{verbatim} + Preposition : Type = Str ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns} +Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the +last letter of the second form (if \textit{n}, then \texttt{utrum}, otherwise \texttt{neutrum}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN : (dreng,drengen,drenger,drengene : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular function takes the singular indefinite form +and computes the other forms and the gender by a heuristic. +The heuristic is that all nouns are \texttt{utrum} with the +plural ending \textit{er///}r//. + +\begin{verbatim} + regN : Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Giving gender manually makes the heuristic more reliable. + +\begin{verbatim} + regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +This function takes the singular indefinite and definite forms; the +gender is computed from the definite form. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk2N : (bil,bilen : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +This function takes the singular indefinite and definite and the plural +indefinite + +\begin{verbatim} + mk3N : (bil,bilen,biler : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} +All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns, +such as \textit{fotboll}. + +\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} +Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +The most common preposition is \textit{av}, and the following is a +shortcut for regular, \texttt{nonhuman} relational nouns with \textit{av}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regN2 : Str -> Gender -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to +form other prepositions. + +Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} +In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a +relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and +\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} +and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. + +\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} +Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows + +\begin{verbatim} + regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- John, John's +\end{verbatim} + +Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}. + +\begin{verbatim} + nounPN : N -> PN ; +\end{verbatim} + +To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular +genitive, you can use the worst-case function. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} +Non-comparison one-place adjectives need three forms: + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA : (galen,galet,galne : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +For regular adjectives, the other forms are derived. + +\begin{verbatim} + regA : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +In most cases, two forms are enough. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk2A : (stor,stort : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} +Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Comparison adjectives may need as many as five forms. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkADeg : (stor,stort,store,storre,storst : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular pattern works for many adjectives, e.g. those ending +with \textit{ig}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regADeg : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +Just the comparison forms can be irregular. + +\begin{verbatim} + irregADeg : (tung,tyngre,tyngst : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +Sometimes just the positive forms are irregular. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk3ADeg : (galen,galet,galna : Str) -> A ; + mk2ADeg : (bred,bredt : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +If comparison is formed by \textit{mer, //mest}, as in general for// +long adjective, the following pattern is used: + +\begin{verbatim} + compoundA : A -> A ; -- -/mer/mest norsk +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} +Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position +after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; + mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; +\end{verbatim} + +Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Prepositions} +A preposition is just a string. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs} +The worst case needs six forms. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV : (spise,spiser,spises,spiste,spist,spis : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The 'regular verb' function is the first conjugation. + +\begin{verbatim} + regV : (snakke : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The almost regular verb function needs the infinitive and the preteritum. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk2V : (leve,levde : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregDan}. +In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books. + +\begin{verbatim} + irregV : (drikke, drakk, drukket : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs with //være// as auxiliary} +By default, the auxiliary is \textit{have}. This function changes it to \textit{være}. + +\begin{verbatim} + vaereV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle} +The particle, such as in \textit{switch on}, is given as a string. + +\begin{verbatim} + partV : V -> Str -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Deponent verbs} +Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. \textit{hoppas}, some as +reflexive e.g. \textit{ångra sig}. + +\begin{verbatim} + depV : V -> V ; + reflV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} +Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. +(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; + + dirV2 : V -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} +Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which +the first one or both can be absent. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV3 : V -> Str -> Str -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about + dirV3 : V -> Str -> V3 ; -- give,_,to + dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_ +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} +Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, +questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV0 : V -> V0 ; + mkVS : V -> VS ; + mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ; + mkVV : V -> VV ; + mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ; + mkVA : V -> VA ; + mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ; + mkVQ : V -> VQ ; + mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ; + + mkAS : A -> AS ; + mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ; + mkAV : A -> AV ; + mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated +just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given +as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. +\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ; + AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; +\end{verbatim} + + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + +== + +\# -path=.:../abstract:../../prelude:../common + + +\subsubsection{English Lexical Paradigms} +Aarne Ranta 2003--2005 + +This is an API to the user of the resource grammar +for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming +expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. + +Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are +accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. + +The main difference with \texttt{MorphoEng.gf} is that the types +referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover +had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather +than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. + +The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: +first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all +regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an +escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. +However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a +separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected +words. + +The following modules are presupposed: + +\begin{verbatim} + resource ParadigmsEng = open + (Predef=Predef), + Prelude, + MorphoEng, + CatEng + in { +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Parameters} +To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + Gender : Type ; + + human : Gender ; + nonhuman : Gender ; + masculine : Gender ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over number names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Number : Type ; + + singular : Number ; + plural : Number ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over case names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Case : Type ; + + nominative : Case ; + genitive : Case ; +\end{verbatim} + +Prepositions are used in many-argument functions for rection. + +\begin{verbatim} + Preposition : Type ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns} +Worst case: give all four forms and the semantic gender. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN : (man,men,man's,men's : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular function captures the variants for nouns ending with +\textit{s},\textit{sh},\textit{x},\textit{z} or \textit{y}: \textit{kiss - kisses}, \textit{flash - flashes}; +\textit{fly - flies} (but \textit{toy - toys}), + +\begin{verbatim} + regN : Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +In practice the worst case is just: give singular and plural nominative. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk2N : (man,men : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +All nouns created by the previous functions are marked as +\texttt{nonhuman}. If you want a \texttt{human} noun, wrap it with the following +function: + +\begin{verbatim} + genderN : Gender -> N -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} +A compound noun ia an uninflected string attached to an inflected noun, +such as \textit{baby boom}, \textit{chief executive officer}. + +\begin{verbatim} + compoundN : Str -> N -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} +Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +The most common preposition is \textit{of}, and the following is a +shortcut for regular relational nouns with \textit{of}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regN2 : Str -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to +form other prepositions. + +Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} +In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a +relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). + +\begin{verbatim} + cnN2 : CN -> Preposition -> N2 ; + cnN3 : CN -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} +Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows + +\begin{verbatim} + regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- John, John's +\end{verbatim} + +Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}. + +\begin{verbatim} + nounPN : N -> PN ; +\end{verbatim} + +To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular +genitive, you can use the worst-case function. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} +Non-comparison one-place adjectives need two forms: one for +the adjectival and one for the adverbial form (\textit{free - freely}) + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA : (free,freely : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +For regular adjectives, the adverbial form is derived. This holds +even for cases with the variation \textit{happy - happily}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regA : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} +Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Comparison adjectives may two more forms. + +\begin{verbatim} + ADeg : Type ; + + mkADeg : (good,better,best,well : Str) -> ADeg ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular pattern recognizes two common variations: +\textit{-e} (\textit{rude} - \textit{ruder} - \textit{rudest}) and +\textit{-y} (\textit{happy - happier - happiest - happily}) + +\begin{verbatim} + regADeg : Str -> ADeg ; -- long, longer, longest +\end{verbatim} + +However, the duplication of the final consonant is nor predicted, +but a separate pattern is used: + +\begin{verbatim} + duplADeg : Str -> ADeg ; -- fat, fatter, fattest +\end{verbatim} + +If comparison is formed by \textit{more, //most}, as in general for// +long adjective, the following pattern is used: + +\begin{verbatim} + compoundADeg : A -> ADeg ; -- -/more/most ridiculous +\end{verbatim} + +From a given \texttt{ADeg}, it is possible to get back to \texttt{A}. + +\begin{verbatim} + adegA : ADeg -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} +Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position +after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; + mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; +\end{verbatim} + +Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Prepositions} +A preposition as used for rection in the lexicon, as well as to +build \texttt{PP}s in the resource API, just requires a string. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; + mkPrep : Str -> Prep ; +\end{verbatim} + +(These two functions are synonyms.) + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs} +Except for \textit{be}, the worst case needs five forms: the infinitive and +the third person singular present, the past indicative, and the +past and present participles. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV : (go, goes, went, gone, going : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular verb function recognizes the special cases where the last +character is \textit{y} (\textit{cry - cries} but \textit{buy - buys}) or \textit{s}, \textit{sh}, \textit{x}, \textit{z} +(\textit{fix - fixes}, etc). + +\begin{verbatim} + regV : Str -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The following variant duplicates the last letter in the forms like +\textit{rip - ripped - ripping}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regDuplV : Str -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregularEng}. +In practice, it is enough to give three forms, +e.g. \textit{drink - drank - drunk}, with a variant indicating consonant +duplication in the present participle. + +\begin{verbatim} + irregV : (drink, drank, drunk : Str) -> V ; + irregDuplV : (get, got, gotten : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle.} +The particle, such as in \textit{switch on}, is given as a string. + +\begin{verbatim} + partV : V -> Str -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Reflexive verbs} +By default, verbs are not reflexive; this function makes them that. + +\begin{verbatim} + reflV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} +Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. +(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; + + dirV2 : V -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} +Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which +the first one or both can be absent. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV3 : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about + dirV3 : V -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- give,_,to + dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_ +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} +Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, +questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV0 : V -> V0 ; + mkVS : V -> VS ; + mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ; + mkVV : V -> VV ; + mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ; + mkVA : V -> VA ; + mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ; + mkVQ : V -> VQ ; + mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ; + + mkAS : A -> AS ; + mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ; + mkAV : A -> AV ; + mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated +just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given +as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. +\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ; + AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; +\end{verbatim} + + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + +== + +\# -path=.:../abstract:../common:../../prelude + + +\subsubsection{Finnish Lexical Paradigms} +Aarne Ranta 2003--2005 + +This is an API to the user of the resource grammar +for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming +expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. + +Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are +accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. + +The main difference with \texttt{MorphoFin.gf} is that the types +referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover +had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather +than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. + +The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: +first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all +regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an +escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. +However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a +separate module \texttt{IrregularFin}, which covers all irregularly inflected +words. + +The following modules are presupposed: + +\begin{verbatim} + resource ParadigmsFin = open + (Predef=Predef), + Prelude, + MorphoFin, + CatFin + in { +\end{verbatim} + +flags optimize=all ; + +\begin{verbatim} + flags optimize=noexpand ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Parameters} +To abstract over gender, number, and (some) case names, +we define the following identifiers. The application programmer +should always use these constants instead of their definitions +in \texttt{TypesInf}. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + Number : Type ; + + singular : Number ; + plural : Number ; + + Case : Type ; + nominative : Case ; + genitive : Case ; + partitive : Case ; + translative : Case ; + inessive : Case ; + elative : Case ; + illative : Case ; + adessive : Case ; + ablative : Case ; + allative : Case ; +\end{verbatim} + +The following type is used for defining \textbf{rection}, i.e. complements +of many-place verbs and adjective. A complement can be defined by +just a case, or a pre/postposition and a case. + +\begin{verbatim} + prePrep : Case -> Str -> Prep ; -- ilman, partitive + postPrep : Case -> Str -> Prep ; -- takana, genitive + postGenPrep : Str -> Prep ; -- takana + casePrep : Case -> Prep ; -- adessive +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns} +The worst case gives ten forms and the semantic gender. +In practice just a couple of forms are needed, to define the different +stems, vowel alternation, and vowel harmony. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + mkN : (talo, talon, talona, taloa, taloon, + taloina,taloissa,talojen,taloja,taloihin : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular noun heuristic takes just one form (singular +nominative) and analyses it to pick the correct paradigm. +It does automatic grade alternation, and is hence not usable +for words like \textit{auto} (whose genitive would become \textit{audon}). + +\begin{verbatim} + regN : (talo : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +If \texttt{regN} does not give the correct result, one can try and give +two or three forms as follows. Examples of the use of these +functions are given in \texttt{BasicFin}. Most notably, \texttt{reg2N} is used +for nouns like \textit{kivi - kiviä}, which would otherwise become like +\textit{rivi - rivejä}. \texttt{regN3} is used e.g. for +\textit{sydän - sydämen - sydämiä}, which would otherwise become +\textit{sydän - sytämen}. + +\begin{verbatim} + reg2N : (savi,savia : Str) -> N ; + reg3N : (vesi,veden,vesiä : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Some nouns have an unexpected singular partitive, e.g. \textit{meri}, \textit{lumi}. + +\begin{verbatim} + sgpartN : (meri : N) -> (merta : Str) -> N ; + nMeri : (meri : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The rest of the noun paradigms are mostly covered by the three +heuristics. + +Nouns with partitive \textit{a///}ä// are a large group. +To determine for grade and vowel alternation, three forms are usually needed: +singular nominative and genitive, and plural partitive. +Examples: \textit{talo}, \textit{kukko}, \textit{huippu}, \textit{koira}, \textit{kukka}, \textit{syylä}, \textit{särki}... + +\begin{verbatim} + nKukko : (kukko,kukon,kukkoja : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +A special case are nouns with no alternations: +the vowel harmony is inferred from the last letter, +which must be one of \textit{o}, \textit{u}, \textit{ö}, \textit{y}. + +\begin{verbatim} + nTalo : (talo : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Another special case are nouns where the last two consonants +undergo regular weak-grade alternation: +\textit{kukko - kukon}, \textit{rutto - ruton}, \textit{hyppy - hypyn}, \textit{sampo - sammon}, +\textit{kunto - kunnon}, \textit{sisältö - sisällön}, . + +\begin{verbatim} + nLukko : (lukko : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\textit{arpi - arven}, \textit{sappi - sapen}, \textit{kampi - kammen};\textit{sylki - syljen} + +\begin{verbatim} + nArpi : (arpi : Str) -> N ; + nSylki : (sylki : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Foreign words ending in consonants are actually similar to words like +\textit{malli///}mallin\textit{/}malleja\textit{, with the exception that the //i} is not attached +to the singular nominative. Examples: \textit{linux}, \textit{savett}, \textit{screen}. +The singular partitive form is used to get the vowel harmony. (N.B. more than +1-syllabic words ending in \textit{n} would have variant plural genitive and +partitive forms, like \textit{sultanien///}sultaneiden//, which are not covered.) + +\begin{verbatim} + nLinux : (linuxia : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Nouns of at least 3 syllables ending with \textit{a} or \textit{ä}, like \textit{peruna}, \textit{tavara}, +\textit{rytinä}. + +\begin{verbatim} + nPeruna : (peruna : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The following paradigm covers both nouns ending in an aspirated \textit{e}, such as +\textit{rae}, \textit{perhe}, \textit{savuke}, and also many ones ending in a consonant +(\textit{rengas}, \textit{kätkyt}). The singular nominative and essive are given. + +\begin{verbatim} + nRae : (rae, rakeena : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The following covers nouns with partitive \textit{ta///}tä//, such as +\textit{susi}, \textit{vesi}, \textit{pieni}. To get all stems and the vowel harmony, it takes +the singular nominative, genitive, and essive. + +\begin{verbatim} + nSusi : (susi,suden,sutta : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Nouns ending with a long vowel, such as \textit{puu}, \textit{pää}, \textit{pii}, \textit{leikkuu}, +are inflected according to the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + nPuu : (puu : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +One-syllable diphthong nouns, such as \textit{suo}, \textit{tie}, \textit{työ}, are inflected by +the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + nSuo : (suo : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Many adjectives but also nouns have the nominative ending \textit{nen} which in other +cases becomes \textit{s}: \textit{nainen}, \textit{ihminen}, \textit{keltainen}. +To capture the vowel harmony, we use the partitive form as the argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + nNainen : (naista : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The following covers some nouns ending with a consonant, e.g. +\textit{tilaus}, \textit{kaulin}, \textit{paimen}, \textit{laidun}. + +\begin{verbatim} + nTilaus : (tilaus,tilauksena : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Special case: + +\begin{verbatim} + nKulaus : (kulaus : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The following covers nouns like \textit{nauris} and adjectives like \textit{kallis}, \textit{tyyris}. +The partitive form is taken to get the vowel harmony. + +\begin{verbatim} + nNauris : (naurista : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Separately-written compound nouns, like \textit{sambal oelek}, \textit{Urho Kekkonen}, +have only their last part inflected. + +\begin{verbatim} + compN : Str -> N -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Nouns used as functions need a case, of which by far the commonest is +the genitive. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN2 : N -> Prep -> N2 ; + genN2 : N -> N2 ; + + mkN3 : N -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Proper names can be formed by using declensions for nouns. +The plural forms are filtered away by the compiler. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPN : N -> PN ; + mkNP : N -> Number -> NP ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} +Non-comparison one-place adjectives are just like nouns. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA : N -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +Two-place adjectives need a case for the second argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA2 : A -> Prep -> A2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Comparison adjectives have three forms. The comparative and the superlative +are always inflected in the same way, so the nominative of them is actually +enough (except for the superlative \textit{paras} of \textit{hyvä}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkADeg : (kiva : N) -> (kivempaa,kivinta : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular adjectives are based on \texttt{regN} in the positive. + +\begin{verbatim} + regA : (punainen : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs} +The grammar does not cover the potential mood and some nominal +forms. One way to see the coverage is to linearize a verb to +a table. +The worst case needs twelve forms, as shown in the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV : (tulla,tulee,tulen,tulevat,tulkaa,tullaan, + tuli,tulin,tulisi,tullut,tultu,tullun : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The following heuristics cover more and more verbs. + +\begin{verbatim} + regV : (soutaa : Str) -> V ; + reg2V : (soutaa,souti : Str) -> V ; + reg3V : (soutaa,soudan,souti : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The subject case of verbs is by default nominative. This dunction can change it. + +\begin{verbatim} + subjcaseV : V -> Case -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The rest of the paradigms are special cases mostly covered by the heuristics. +A simple special case is the one with just one stem and without grade alternation. + +\begin{verbatim} + vValua : (valua : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +With two forms, the following function covers a variety of verbs, such as +\textit{ottaa}, \textit{käyttää}, \textit{löytää}, \textit{huoltaa}, \textit{hiihtää}, \textit{siirtää}. + +\begin{verbatim} + vKattaa : (kattaa, katan : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +When grade alternation is not present, just a one-form special case is needed +(\textit{poistaa}, \textit{ryystää}). + +\begin{verbatim} + vOstaa : (ostaa : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The following covers +\textit{juosta}, \textit{piestä}, \textit{nousta}, \textit{rangaista}, \textit{kävellä}, \textit{surra}, \textit{panna}. + +\begin{verbatim} + vNousta : (nousta, nousen : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +This is for one-syllable diphthong verbs like \textit{juoda}, \textit{syödä}. + +\begin{verbatim} + vTuoda : (tuoda : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +All the patterns above have \texttt{nominative} as subject case. +If another case is wanted, use the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + caseV : Case -> V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The verbs \textit{be} is special. + +\begin{verbatim} + vOlla : V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Two-place verbs need a case, and can have a pre- or postposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV2 : V -> Prep -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +If the complement needs just a case, the following special function can be used. + +\begin{verbatim} + caseV2 : V -> Case -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Verbs with a direct (accusative) object +are special, since their complement case is finally decided in syntax. +But this is taken care of by \texttt{ClauseFin}. + +\begin{verbatim} + dirV2 : V -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} +Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which +the first one or both can be absent. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV3 : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about + dirV3 : V -> Case -> V3 ; -- give,_,to + dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- acc, allat +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} +Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, +questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV0 : V -> V0 ; + mkVS : V -> VS ; + mkV2S : V -> Prep -> V2S ; + mkVV : V -> VV ; + mkV2V : V -> Prep -> V2V ; + mkVA : V -> Prep -> VA ; + mkV2A : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V2A ; + mkVQ : V -> VQ ; + mkV2Q : V -> Prep -> V2Q ; + + mkAS : A -> AS ; + mkA2S : A -> Prep -> A2S ; + mkAV : A -> AV ; + mkA2V : A -> Prep -> A2V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated +just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given +as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. +\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ; + AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; +\end{verbatim} + +The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are +hidden from the document. +Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006 + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + +== + +\# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude + + +\subsubsection{French Lexical Paradigms} +Aarne Ranta 2003 + +This is an API to the user of the resource grammar +for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming +expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. + +Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are +accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. + +The main difference with \texttt{MorphoFre.gf} is that the types +referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover +had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather +than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. + +The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: +first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all +regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an +escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. +However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a +separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected +words. + +\begin{verbatim} + resource ParadigmsFre = + open + (Predef=Predef), + Prelude, + CommonRomance, + ResFre, + MorphoFre, + CatFre in { + + flags optimize=all ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Parameters} +To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + Gender : Type ; + + masculine : Gender ; + feminine : Gender ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over number names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Number : Type ; + + singular : Number ; + plural : Number ; +\end{verbatim} + +Prepositions used in many-argument functions are either strings +(including the 'accusative' empty string) or strings that +amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' \textit{de} and the +'dative' \textit{à}). + +\begin{verbatim} + Preposition : Type ; + + accusative : Preposition ; + genitive : Preposition ; + dative : Preposition ; + + mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns} +Worst case: give both two forms and the gender. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN : (oeil,yeux : Str) -> Gender -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular function takes the singular form, +and computes the plural and the gender by a heuristic. The plural +heuristic currently +covers the cases \textit{pas-pas}, \textit{prix-prix}, \textit{nez-nez}, +\textit{bijou-bijoux}, \textit{cheveu-cheveux}, \textit{plateau-plateaux}, \textit{cheval-chevaux}. +The gender heuristic is less reliable: it treats as feminine all +nouns ending with \textit{e} and \textit{ion}, all others as masculine. +If in doubt, use the \texttt{cc} command to test! + +\begin{verbatim} + regN : Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Adding gender information widens the scope of the foregoing function. + +\begin{verbatim} + regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} +Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but +the second part is not inflected. e.g. \textit{numéro de téléphone}. +They could be formed in syntax, but we give a shortcut here since +they are frequent in lexica. + +\begin{verbatim} + compN : N -> Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} +Relational nouns (\textit{fille de x}) need a case and a preposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +The most common cases are the genitive \textit{de} and the dative \textit{à}, +with the empty preposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + deN2 : N -> N2 ; + aN2 : N -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Three-place relational nouns (\textit{la connection de x à y}) need two prepositions. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} +In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a +relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and +\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} +and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. + +\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} +Proper names need a string and a gender. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- Jean +\end{verbatim} + +To form a noun phrase that can also be plural, +you can use the worst-case function. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} +Non-comparison one-place adjectives need four forms in the worst +case (masc and fem singular, masc plural, adverbial). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA : (banal,banale,banaux,banalement : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +For regular adjectives, all other forms are derived from the +masculine singular. The heuristic takes into account certain +deviant endings: \textit{banal- -banaux}, \textit{chinois- -chinois}, +\textit{heureux-heureuse-heureux}, \textit{italien-italienne}, \textit{jeune-jeune}, +\textit{amer-amère}, \textit{carré- - -carrément}, \textit{joli- - -joliment}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regA : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +These functions create postfix adjectives. To switch +them to prefix ones (i.e. ones placed before the noun in +modification, as in \textit{petite maison}), the following function is +provided. + +\begin{verbatim} + prefA : A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} +Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Comparison adjectives} +Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two +adjectives: the positive (\textit{bon}), and the comparative (\textit{meilleure}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkADeg : A -> A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +If comparison is formed by \textit{plus}, as usual in French, +the following pattern is used: + +\begin{verbatim} + compADeg : A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +For prefixed adjectives, the following function is +provided. + +\begin{verbatim} + prefA : A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} +Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position +after the verb. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; +\end{verbatim} + +Some appear next to the verb (e.g. \textit{toujours}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; +\end{verbatim} + +Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs} +Irregular verbs are given in the module \texttt{VerbsFre}. +If a verb should be missing in that list, the module +\texttt{BeschFre} gives all the patterns of the \textit{Bescherelle} book. + +Regular verbs are ones with the infinitive \textit{er} or \textit{ir}, the +latter with plural present indicative forms as \textit{finissons}. +The regular verb function is the first conjugation recognizes +these endings, as well as the variations among +\textit{aimer, céder, placer, peser, jeter, placer, manger, assiéger, payer}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regV : Str -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Sometimes, however, it is not predictable which variant of the \textit{er} +conjugation is to be selected. Then it is better to use the function +that gives the third person singular present indicative and future +((\textit{il}) \textit{jette}, \textit{jettera}) as second argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + reg3V : (jeter,jette,jettera : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The function \texttt{regV} gives all verbs the compound auxiliary \textit{avoir}. +To change it to \textit{être}, use the following function. Reflexive implies \textit{être}. + +\begin{verbatim} + etreV : V -> V ; + reflV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} +Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. +(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; + + dirV2 : V -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +You can reuse a \texttt{V2} verb in \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + v2V : V2 -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} +Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which +the first one or both can be absent. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV3 : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- parler, à, de + dirV3 : V -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- donner,_,à + dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- donner,_,_ +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} +Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, +questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV0 : V -> V0 ; + mkVS : V -> VS ; + mkV2S : V -> Preposition -> V2S ; + mkVV : V -> VV ; -- plain infinitive: "je veux parler" + deVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'essaie de parler" + aVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'arrive à parler" + mkV2V : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2V ; + mkVA : V -> VA ; + mkV2A : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2A ; + mkVQ : V -> VQ ; + mkV2Q : V -> Preposition -> V2Q ; + + mkAS : A -> AS ; + mkA2S : A -> Preposition -> A2S ; + mkAV : A -> Preposition -> AV ; + mkA2V : A -> Preposition -> Preposition -> A2V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated +just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given +as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. +\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ; + AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + +== + +\# -path=.:../common:../abstract:../../prelude + + +\subsubsection{German Lexical Paradigms} +Aarne Ranta \& Harald Hammarström 2003--2006 + +This is an API to the user of the resource grammar +for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming +expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. + +Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are +accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. + +The main difference with \texttt{MorphoGer.gf} is that the types +referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover +had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather +than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. + +The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: +first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all +regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an +escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. +However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a +separate module \texttt{IrregularGer}, which covers all irregularly inflected +words. + +\begin{verbatim} + resource ParadigmsGer = open + (Predef=Predef), + Prelude, + MorphoGer, + CatGer + in { +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Parameters} +To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + Gender : Type ; + + masculine : Gender ; + feminine : Gender ; + neuter : Gender ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over case names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Case : Type ; + + nominative : Case ; + accusative : Case ; + dative : Case ; + genitive : Case ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over number names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Number : Type ; + + singular : Number ; + plural : Number ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns} +Worst case: give all four singular forms, two plural forms (others + dative), +and the gender. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN : (x1,_,_,_,_,x6 : Str) -> Gender -> N ; + -- mann, mann, manne, mannes, männer, männern +\end{verbatim} + +The regular heuristics recognizes some suffixes, from which it +guesses the gender and the declension: \textit{e, ung, ion} give the +feminine with plural ending \textit{-n, -en}, and the rest are masculines +with the plural \textit{-e} (without Umlaut). + +\begin{verbatim} + regN : Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The 'almost regular' case is much like the information given in an ordinary +dictionary. It takes the singular and plural nominative and the +gender, and infers the other forms from these. + +\begin{verbatim} + reg2N : (x1,x2 : Str) -> Gender -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Relational nouns need a preposition. The most common is \textit{von} with +the dative. Some prepositions are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{StructuralGer}{StructuralGer.html}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN2 : N -> Prep -> N2 ; + vonN2 : N -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Use the function \texttt{mkPrep} or see the section on prepositions below to +form other prepositions. + +Three-place relational nouns (\textit{die Verbindung von x nach y}) need two prepositions. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN3 : N -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} +Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows +The regular genitive is \textit{s}, omitted after \textit{s}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPN : (karolus, karoli : Str) -> PN ; -- karolus, karoli + regPN : (Johann : Str) -> PN ; -- Johann, Johanns ; Johannes, Johannes +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} +Adjectives need three forms, one for each degree. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA : (x1,_,x3 : Str) -> A ; -- gut,besser,beste +\end{verbatim} + +The regular adjective formation works for most cases, and includes +variations such as \textit{teuer - teurer}, \textit{böse - böser}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regA : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +Invariable adjective are a special case. + +\begin{verbatim} + invarA : Str -> A ; -- prima +\end{verbatim} + +Two-place adjectives are formed by adding a preposition to an adjective. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA2 : A -> Prep -> A2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} +Adverbs are just strings. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Prepositions} +A preposition is formed from a string and a case. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPrep : Str -> Case -> Prep ; +\end{verbatim} + +Often just a case with the empty string is enough. + +\begin{verbatim} + accPrep : Prep ; + datPrep : Prep ; + genPrep : Prep ; +\end{verbatim} + +A couple of common prepositions (always with the dative). + +\begin{verbatim} + von_Prep : Prep ; + zu_Prep : Prep ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs} +The worst-case constructor needs six forms: + +\begin{itemize} +\item Infinitive, +\item 3p sg pres. indicative, +\item 2p sg imperative, +\item 1/3p sg imperfect indicative, +\item 1/3p sg imperfect subjunctive (because this uncommon form can have umlaut) +\item the perfect participle +\end{itemize} + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV : (x1,_,_,_,_,x6 : Str) -> V ; -- geben, gibt, gib, gab, gäbe, gegeben +\end{verbatim} + +Weak verbs are sometimes called regular verbs. + +\begin{verbatim} + regV : Str -> V ; -- führen +\end{verbatim} + +Irregular verbs use Ablaut and, in the worst cases, also Umlaut. + +\begin{verbatim} + irregV : (x1,_,_,_,x5 : Str) -> V ; -- sehen, sieht, sah, sähe, gesehen +\end{verbatim} + +To remove the past participle prefix \textit{ge}, e.g. for the verbs +prefixed by \textit{be-, ver-}. + +\begin{verbatim} + no_geV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +To add a movable suffix e.g. \textit{auf(fassen)}. + +\begin{verbatim} + prefixV : Str -> V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +To change the auxiliary from \textit{haben} (default) to \textit{sein} and +vice-versa. + +\begin{verbatim} + seinV : V -> V ; + habenV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Reflexive verbs can take reflexive pronouns of different cases. + +\begin{verbatim} + reflV : V -> Case -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} +Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object +(accusative, transitive verbs). There is also a case for dative objects. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV2 : V -> Prep -> V2 ; + + dirV2 : V -> V2 ; + datV2 : V -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} +Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which +the first one or both can be absent. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV3 : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about + dirV3 : V -> Prep -> V3 ; -- give,_,to + accdatV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_ +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} +Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, +questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV0 : V -> V0 ; + mkVS : V -> VS ; + mkV2S : V -> Prep -> V2S ; + mkVV : V -> VV ; + mkV2V : V -> Prep -> V2V ; + mkVA : V -> VA ; + mkV2A : V -> Prep -> V2A ; + mkVQ : V -> VQ ; + mkV2Q : V -> Prep -> V2Q ; + + mkAS : A -> AS ; + mkA2S : A -> Prep -> A2S ; + mkAV : A -> AV ; + mkA2V : A -> Prep -> A2V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated +just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given +as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. +\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ; + AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + +== + +\# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude + + +\subsubsection{Italian Lexical Paradigms} +Aarne Ranta 2003 + +This is an API to the user of the resource grammar +for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming +expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. + +Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are +accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. + +The main difference with \texttt{MorphoIta.gf} is that the types +referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover +had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather +than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. + +The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: +first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all +regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an +escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. +However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a +separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected +words. + +\begin{verbatim} + resource ParadigmsIta = + open + (Predef=Predef), + Prelude, + CommonRomance, + ResIta, + MorphoIta, + BeschIta, + CatIta in { + + flags optimize=all ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Parameters} +To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + Gender : Type ; + + masculine : Gender ; + feminine : Gender ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over number names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Number : Type ; + + singular : Number ; + plural : Number ; +\end{verbatim} + +Prepositions used in many-argument functions are either strings +(including the 'accusative' empty string) or strings that +amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' \textit{de} and the +'dative' \textit{à}). + +\begin{verbatim} + Preposition : Type ; + + accusative : Preposition ; + genitive : Preposition ; + dative : Preposition ; + + mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns} +Worst case: give both two forms and the gender. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN : (uomi,uomini : Str) -> Gender -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular function takes the singular form and the gender, +and computes the plural and the gender by a heuristic. +The heuristic says that the gender is feminine for nouns +ending with \textit{a}, and masculine for all other words. + +\begin{verbatim} + regN : Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +To force a different gender, use one of the following functions. + +\begin{verbatim} + mascN : N -> N ; + femN : N -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} +Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but +the second part is not inflected. e.g. \textit{numéro de téléphone}. +They could be formed in syntax, but we give a shortcut here since +they are frequent in lexica. + +\begin{verbatim} + compN : N -> Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} +Relational nouns (\textit{figlio di x}) need a case and a preposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +The most common cases are the genitive \textit{di} and the dative \textit{a}, +with the empty preposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + diN2 : N -> N2 ; + aN2 : N -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Three-place relational nouns (\textit{la connessione di x a y}) need two prepositions. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} +In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a +relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and +\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} +and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. + +\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} +Proper names need a string and a gender. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- Jean +\end{verbatim} + +To form a noun phrase that can also be plural, +you can use the worst-case function. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} +Non-comparison one-place adjectives need five forms in the worst +case (masc and fem singular, masc plural, adverbial). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA : (solo,sola,soli,sole, solamente : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +For regular adjectives, all other forms are derived from the +masculine singular. + +\begin{verbatim} + regA : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +These functions create postfix adjectives. To switch +them to prefix ones (i.e. ones placed before the noun in +modification, as in \textit{petite maison}), the following function is +provided. + +\begin{verbatim} + prefA : A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} +Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Comparison adjectives} +Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two +adjectives: the positive (\textit{buono}), and the comparative (\textit{migliore}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkADeg : A -> A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +If comparison is formed by \textit{più}, as usual in Italian, +the following pattern is used: + +\begin{verbatim} + compADeg : A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular pattern is the same as \texttt{regA} for plain adjectives, +with comparison by \textit{plus}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regADeg : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} +Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position +after the verb. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; +\end{verbatim} + +Some appear next to the verb (e.g. \textit{sempre}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; +\end{verbatim} + +Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs} +Regular verbs are ones with the infinitive \textit{er} or \textit{ir}, the +latter with plural present indicative forms as \textit{finissons}. +The regular verb function is the first conjugation recognizes +these endings, as well as the variations among +\textit{aimer, céder, placer, peser, jeter, placer, manger, assiéger, payer}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regV : Str -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The module \texttt{BeschIta} gives all the patterns of the \textit{Bescherelle} +book. To use them in the category \texttt{V}, wrap them with the function + +\begin{verbatim} + verboV : Verbo -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The function \texttt{regV} gives all verbs the compound auxiliary \textit{avere}. +To change it to \textit{essere}, use the following function. +Reflexive implies \textit{essere}. + +\begin{verbatim} + essereV : V -> V ; + reflV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} +Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. +(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; + + dirV2 : V -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +You can reuse a \texttt{V2} verb in \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + v2V : V2 -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} +Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which +the first one or both can be absent. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV3 : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- parler, à, de + dirV3 : V -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- donner,_,à + dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- donner,_,_ +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} +Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, +questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV0 : V -> V0 ; + mkVS : V -> VS ; + mkV2S : V -> Preposition -> V2S ; + mkVV : V -> VV ; -- plain infinitive: "je veux parler" + deVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'essaie de parler" + aVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'arrive à parler" + mkV2V : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2V ; + mkVA : V -> VA ; + mkV2A : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2A ; + mkVQ : V -> VQ ; + mkV2Q : V -> Preposition -> V2Q ; + + mkAS : A -> AS ; + mkA2S : A -> Preposition -> A2S ; + mkAV : A -> Preposition -> AV ; + mkA2V : A -> Preposition -> Preposition -> A2V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated +just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given +as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. +\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ; + AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{The definitions of the paradigms} +The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are +hidden from the document. +Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006 + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + +== + +\# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude + + +\subsubsection{Norwegian Lexical Paradigms} +Aarne Ranta 2003 + +This is an API to the user of the resource grammar +for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming +expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. + +Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are +accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. + +The main difference with \texttt{MorphoNor.gf} is that the types +referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover +had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather +than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. + +The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: +first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all +regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an +escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. +However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a +separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected +words. + +\begin{verbatim} + resource ParadigmsNor = + open + (Predef=Predef), + Prelude, + CommonScand, + ResNor, + MorphoNor, + CatNor in { +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Parameters} +To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + Gender : Type ; + + masculine : Gender ; + feminine : Gender ; + neutrum : Gender ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over number names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Number : Type ; + + singular : Number ; + plural : Number ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over case names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Case : Type ; + + nominative : Case ; + genitive : Case ; +\end{verbatim} + +Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings. + +\begin{verbatim} + Preposition : Type = Str ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns} +Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the +last letter of the second form (if \textit{n}, then \texttt{utrum}, otherwise \texttt{neutrum}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN : (dreng,drengen,drenger,drengene : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular function takes the singular indefinite form +and computes the other forms and the gender by a heuristic. +The heuristic is that nouns ending \textit{e} are feminine like \textit{kvinne}, +all others are masculine like \textit{bil}. +If in doubt, use the \texttt{cc} command to test! + +\begin{verbatim} + regN : Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Giving gender manually makes the heuristic more reliable. + +\begin{verbatim} + regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +This function takes the singular indefinite and definite forms; the +gender is computed from the definite form. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk2N : (bil,bilen : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} +All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns, +such as \textit{fotboll}. + +\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} +Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +The most common preposition is \textit{av}, and the following is a +shortcut for regular, \texttt{nonhuman} relational nouns with \textit{av}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regN2 : Str -> Gender -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to +form other prepositions. + +Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} +In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a +relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and +\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} +and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. + +\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} +Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows + +\begin{verbatim} + regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- John, John's +\end{verbatim} + +Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}. + +\begin{verbatim} + nounPN : N -> PN ; +\end{verbatim} + +To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular +genitive, you can use the worst-case function. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} +Non-comparison one-place adjectives need three forms: + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA : (galen,galet,galne : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +For regular adjectives, the other forms are derived. + +\begin{verbatim} + regA : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +In most cases, two forms are enough. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk2A : (stor,stort : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} +Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Comparison adjectives may need as many as five forms. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkADeg : (stor,stort,store,storre,storst : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular pattern works for many adjectives, e.g. those ending +with \textit{ig}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regADeg : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +Just the comparison forms can be irregular. + +\begin{verbatim} + irregADeg : (tung,tyngre,tyngst : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +Sometimes just the positive forms are irregular. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk3ADeg : (galen,galet,galna : Str) -> A ; + mk2ADeg : (bred,bredt : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +If comparison is formed by \textit{mer, //mest}, as in general for// +long adjective, the following pattern is used: + +\begin{verbatim} + compoundA : A -> A ; -- -/mer/mest norsk +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} +Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position +after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; + mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; +\end{verbatim} + +Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Prepositions} +A preposition is just a string. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs} +The worst case needs six forms. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV : (spise,spiser,spises,spiste,spist,spis : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The 'regular verb' function is the first conjugation. + +\begin{verbatim} + regV : (snakke : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The almost regular verb function needs the infinitive and the preteritum. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk2V : (leve,levde : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregNor}. +In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books. + +\begin{verbatim} + irregV : (drikke, drakk, drukket : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs with //være// as auxiliary} +By default, the auxiliary is \textit{have}. This function changes it to \textit{være}. + +\begin{verbatim} + vaereV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle.} +The particle, such as in \textit{switch on}, is given as a string. + +\begin{verbatim} + partV : V -> Str -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Deponent verbs.} +Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. \textit{hoppas}, some as +reflexive e.g. \textit{ångra sig}. + +\begin{verbatim} + depV : V -> V ; + reflV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} +Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. +(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; + + dirV2 : V -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} +Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which +the first one or both can be absent. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV3 : V -> Str -> Str -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about + dirV3 : V -> Str -> V3 ; -- give,_,to + dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_ +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} +Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, +questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV0 : V -> V0 ; + mkVS : V -> VS ; + mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ; + mkVV : V -> VV ; + mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ; + mkVA : V -> VA ; + mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ; + mkVQ : V -> VQ ; + mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ; + + mkAS : A -> AS ; + mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ; + mkAV : A -> AV ; + mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated +just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given +as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. +\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ; + AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + +== + +\# -path=.:../abstract:../../prelude:../common + + +\subsubsection{Russian Lexical Paradigms} +Janna Khegai 2003--2005 + +This is an API to the user of the resource grammar +for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming +expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. + +Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are +accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. + +The main difference with \texttt{MorphoEng.gf} is that the types +referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover +had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather +than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. + +The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: +first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all +regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an +escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. +However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a +separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected +words. + +The following modules are presupposed: + +\begin{verbatim} + resource ParadigmsRus = open + (Predef=Predef), + Prelude, + MorphoRus, + CatRus, + NounRus + in { + + flags coding=utf8 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Parameters} +To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + Gender : Type ; + masculine : Gender ; + feminine : Gender ; + neuter : Gender ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over case names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Case : Type ; + + nominative : Case ; + genitive : Case ; + dative : Case ; + accusative : Case ; + instructive : Case ; + prepositional : Case ; +\end{verbatim} + +In some (written in English) textbooks accusative case +is put on the second place. However, we follow the case order +standard for Russian textbooks. +To abstract over number names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Number : Type ; + + singular : Number ; + plural : Number ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns} +Best case: indeclinabe nouns: \textit{кофе}, \textit{пальто}, \textit{ВУЗ}. + +\begin{verbatim} + Animacy: Type ; + + animate: Animacy; + inanimate: Animacy; + + mkIndeclinableNoun: Str -> Gender -> Animacy -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Worst case - give six singular forms: +Nominative, Genetive, Dative, Accusative, Instructive and Prepositional; +corresponding six plural forms and the gender. +May be the number of forms needed can be reduced, +but this requires a separate investigation. +Animacy parameter (determining whether the Accusative form is equal +to the Nominative or the Genetive one) is actually of no help, +since there are a lot of exceptions and the gain is just one form less. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN : (_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> Gender -> Animacy -> N ; + + -- мужчина, мужчины, мужчине, мужчину, мужчиной, мужчине + -- мужчины, мужчин, мужчинам, мужчин, мужчинами, мужчинах +\end{verbatim} + +The regular function captures the variants for some popular nouns +endings below: + +\begin{verbatim} + regN : Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Here are some common patterns. The list is far from complete. +Feminine patterns. + +\begin{verbatim} + nMashina : Str -> N ; -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-а", Inst -"машин-ой" + nEdinica : Str -> N ; -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-а", Inst -"единиц-ей" + nZhenchina : Str -> N ; -- feminine, animate, ending with "-a" + nNoga : Str -> N ; -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "г_к_х-a" + nMalyariya : Str -> N ; -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-ия" + nTetya : Str -> N ; -- feminine, animate, ending with "-я" + nBol : Str -> N ; -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-ь"(soft sign) +\end{verbatim} + +Neuter patterns. + +\begin{verbatim} + nObezbolivauchee : Str -> N ; -- neutral, inanimate, ending with "-ee" + nProizvedenie : Str -> N ; -- neutral, inanimate, ending with "-e" + nChislo : Str -> N ; -- neutral, inanimate, ending with "-o" + nZhivotnoe : Str -> N ; -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ень" +\end{verbatim} + +Masculine patterns. +Ending with consonant: + +\begin{verbatim} + nPepel : Str -> N ; -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ел"- "пеп-ла" + + nBrat: Str -> N ; -- animate, брат-ья + nStul: Str -> N ; -- same as above, but inanimate + nMalush : Str -> N ; -- малышей + nPotolok : Str -> N ; -- потол-ок - потол-ка + + -- the next four differ in plural nominative and/or accusative form(s) : + nBank: Str -> N ; -- банк-и (Nom=Acc) + nStomatolog : Str -> N ; -- same as above, but animate + nAdres : Str -> N ; -- адрес-а (Nom=Acc) + nTelefon : Str -> N ; -- телефон-ы (Nom=Acc) + + nNol : Str -> N ; -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ь" (soft sign) + nUroven : Str -> N ; -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ень" +\end{verbatim} + +Nouns used as functions need a preposition. The most common is with Genitive. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkFun : N -> Prep -> N2 ; + mkN2 : N -> N2 ; + mkN3 : N -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Proper names. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPN : Str -> Gender -> Animacy -> PN ; -- "Иван", "Маша" + nounPN : N -> PN ; +\end{verbatim} + +On the top level, it is maybe \texttt{CN} that is used rather than \texttt{N}, and +\texttt{NP} rather than \texttt{PN}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkCN : N -> CN ; + mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Animacy -> NP ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} +Non-comparison (only positive degree) one-place adjectives need 28 (4 by 7) +forms in the worst case: +Masculine $|$ Feminine $|$ Neutral $|$ Plural +Nominative +Genitive +Dative +Accusative Inanimate +Accusative Animate +Instructive +Prepositional +Notice that 4 short forms, which exist for some adjectives are not included +in the current description, otherwise there would be 32 forms for +positive degree. +mkA : ( : Str) -$>$ A ; +The regular function captures the variants for some popular adjective +endings below: + +\begin{verbatim} + regA : Str -> Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +Invariable adjective is a special case. + +\begin{verbatim} + adjInvar : Str -> A ; -- khaki, mini, hindi, netto +\end{verbatim} + +Some regular patterns depending on the ending. + +\begin{verbatim} + AStaruyj : Str -> Str -> A ; -- ending with "-ый" + AMalenkij : Str -> Str -> A ; -- ending with "-ий", Gen - "маленьк-ого" + AKhoroshij : Str -> Str -> A ; -- ending with "-ий", Gen - "хорош-его" + AMolodoj : Str -> Str -> A ; -- ending with "-ой", + -- plural - молод-ые" + AKakoj_Nibud : Str -> Str -> Str -> A ; -- ending with "-ой", + -- plural - "как-ие" +\end{verbatim} + +Two-place adjectives need a preposition and a case as extra arguments. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA2 : A -> Str -> Case -> A2 ; -- "делим на" +\end{verbatim} + +Comparison adjectives need a positive adjective +(28 forms without short forms). +Taking only one comparative form (non-syntaxic) and +only one superlative form (syntaxic) we can produce the +comparison adjective with only one extra argument - +non-syntaxic comparative form. +Syntaxic forms are based on the positive forms. +mkADeg : A -$>$ Str -$>$ ADeg ; +On top level, there are adjectival phrases. The most common case is +just to use a one-place adjective. +ap : A -$>$ IsPostfixAdj -$>$ AP ; + +\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} +Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position +after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs} +In our lexicon description (\textit{Verbum}) there are 62 forms: +2 (Voice) by \{ 1 (infinitive) + [2(number) by 3 (person)](imperative) + +[ [2(Number) by 3(Person)](present) + [2(Number) by 3(Person)](future) + +4(GenNum)(past) ](indicative)+ 4 (GenNum) (subjunctive) \} +Participles (Present and Past) and Gerund forms are not included, +since they fuction more like Adjectives and Adverbs correspondingly +rather than verbs. Aspect regarded as an inherent parameter of a verb. +Notice, that some forms are never used for some verbs. Actually, +the majority of verbs do not have many of the forms. + +\begin{verbatim} + Voice: Type; + Aspect: Type; +\end{verbatim} + +Tense : Type; + +\begin{verbatim} + Bool: Type; + Conjugation: Type ; + + first: Conjugation; -- "гуля-Ешь, гуля-Ем" + firstE: Conjugation; -- Verbs with vowel "ё": "даёшь" (give), "пьёшь" (drink) + second: Conjugation; -- "вид-Ишь, вид-Им" + mixed: Conjugation; -- "хоч-Ешь - хот-Им" + dolzhen: Conjugation; -- irregular + + true: Bool; + false: Bool; + + active: Voice ; + passive: Voice ; + imperfective: Aspect; + perfective: Aspect ; +\end{verbatim} + +present : Tense ; +past : Tense ; +The worst case need 6 forms of the present tense in indicative mood +(\textit{я бегу}, \textit{ты бежишь}, \textit{он бежит}, \textit{мы бежим}, \textit{вы бежите}, \textit{они бегут}), +a past form (singular, masculine: \textit{я бежал}), an imperative form +(singular, second person: \textit{беги}), an infinitive (\textit{бежать}). +Inherent aspect should also be specified. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkVerbum : Aspect -> (_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Common conjugation patterns are two conjugations: +first - verbs ending with \textit{-ать/-ять} and second - \textit{-ить/-еть}. +Instead of 6 present forms of the worst case, we only need +a present stem and one ending (singular, first person): +\textit{я люб-лю}, \textit{я жд-у}, etc. To determine where the border +between stem and ending lies it is sufficient to compare +first person from with second person form: +\textit{я люб-лю}, \textit{ты люб-ишь}. Stems shoud be the same. +So the definition for verb \textit{любить} looks like: +regV Imperfective Second \textit{люб} \textit{лю} \textit{любил} \textit{люби} \textit{любить}; + +\begin{verbatim} + regV :Aspect -> Conjugation -> (_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +For writing an application grammar one usualy doesn't need +the whole inflection table, since each verb is used in +a particular context that determines some of the parameters +(Tense and Voice while Aspect is fixed from the beginning) for certain usage. +The \textit{V} type, that have these parameters fixed. +We can extract the \textit{V} from the lexicon. +mkV: Verbum -$>$ Voice -$>$ V ; +mkPresentV: Verbum -$>$ Voice -$>$ V ; +Two-place verbs, and the special case with direct object. Notice that +a particle can be included in a \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV2 : V -> Str -> Case -> V2 ; -- "войти в дом"; "в", accusative + mkV3 : V -> Str -> Str -> Case -> Case -> V3 ; -- "сложить письмо в конверт" + dirV2 : V -> V2 ; -- "видеть", "любить" + tvDirDir : V -> V3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + +== + +\# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude + + +\subsubsection{Spanish Lexical Paradigms} +Aarne Ranta 2003 + +This is an API to the user of the resource grammar +for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming +expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. + +Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are +accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. + +The main difference with \texttt{MorphoSpa.gf} is that the types +referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover +had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather +than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. + +The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: +first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all +regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an +escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. + +\begin{verbatim} + resource ParadigmsSpa = + open + (Predef=Predef), + Prelude, + CommonRomance, + ResSpa, + MorphoSpa, + BeschSpa, + CatSpa in { + + flags optimize=all ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Parameters} +To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + Gender : Type ; + + masculine : Gender ; + feminine : Gender ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over number names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Number : Type ; + + singular : Number ; + plural : Number ; +\end{verbatim} + +Prepositions used in many-argument functions are either strings +(including the 'accusative' empty string) or strings that +amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' \textit{de} and the +'dative' \textit{à}). + +\begin{verbatim} + Preposition : Type ; + + accusative : Preposition ; + genitive : Preposition ; + dative : Preposition ; + + mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns} +Worst case: two forms (singular + plural), +and the gender. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN : (_,_ : Str) -> Gender -> N ; -- uomo, uomini, masculine +\end{verbatim} + +The regular function takes the singular form and the gender, +and computes the plural and the gender by a heuristic. +The heuristic says that the gender is feminine for nouns +ending with \textit{a} or \textit{z}, and masculine for all other words. +Nouns ending with \textit{a}, \textit{o}, \textit{e} have the plural with \textit{s}, +those ending with \textit{z} have \textit{ces} in plural; all other nouns +have \textit{es} as plural ending. The accent is not dealt with. + +\begin{verbatim} + regN : Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +To force a different gender, use one of the following functions. + +\begin{verbatim} + mascN : N -> N ; + femN : N -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} +Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but +the second part is not inflected. e.g. \textit{numéro de téléphone}. +They could be formed in syntax, but we give a shortcut here since +they are frequent in lexica. + +\begin{verbatim} + compN : N -> Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} +Relational nouns (\textit{fille de x}) need a case and a preposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +The most common cases are the genitive \textit{de} and the dative \textit{a}, +with the empty preposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + deN2 : N -> N2 ; + aN2 : N -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Three-place relational nouns (\textit{la connessione di x a y}) need two prepositions. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} +In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a +relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and +\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} +and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. + +\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} +Proper names need a string and a gender. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- Jean +\end{verbatim} + +To form a noun phrase that can also be plural, +you can use the worst-case function. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} +Non-comparison one-place adjectives need five forms in the worst +case (masc and fem singular, masc plural, adverbial). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA : (solo,sola,soli,sole, solamente : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +For regular adjectives, all other forms are derived from the +masculine singular. The types of adjectives that are recognized are +\textit{alto}, \textit{fuerte}, \textit{util}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regA : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +These functions create postfix adjectives. To switch +them to prefix ones (i.e. ones placed before the noun in +modification, as in \textit{petite maison}), the following function is +provided. + +\begin{verbatim} + prefA : A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} +Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Comparison adjectives} +Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two +adjectives: the positive (\textit{bueno}), and the comparative (\textit{mejor}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkADeg : A -> A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +If comparison is formed by \textit{mas}, as usual in Spanish, +the following pattern is used: + +\begin{verbatim} + compADeg : A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular pattern is the same as \texttt{regA} for plain adjectives, +with comparison by \textit{mas}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regADeg : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} +Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position +after the verb. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; +\end{verbatim} + +Some appear next to the verb (e.g. \textit{siempre}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; +\end{verbatim} + +Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs} +Regular verbs are ones inflected like \textit{cortar}, \textit{deber}, or \textit{vivir}. +The regular verb function is the first conjugation (\textit{ar}) recognizes +the variations corresponding to the patterns +\textit{actuar, cazar, guiar, pagar, sacar}. The module \texttt{BeschSpa} gives +the complete set of \textit{Bescherelle} conjugations. + +\begin{verbatim} + regV : Str -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The module \texttt{BeschSpa} gives all the patterns of the \textit{Bescherelle} +book. To use them in the category \texttt{V}, wrap them with the function + +\begin{verbatim} + verboV : Verbum -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +To form reflexive verbs: + +\begin{verbatim} + reflV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Verbs with a deviant passive participle: just give the participle +in masculine singular form as second argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + special_ppV : V -> Str -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} +Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. +(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; + + dirV2 : V -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +You can reuse a \texttt{V2} verb in \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + v2V : V2 -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} +Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which +the first one or both can be absent. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV3 : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- parler, à, de + dirV3 : V -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- donner,_,à + dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- donner,_,_ +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} +Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, +questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV0 : V -> V0 ; + mkVS : V -> VS ; + mkV2S : V -> Preposition -> V2S ; + mkVV : V -> VV ; -- plain infinitive: "je veux parler" + deVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'essaie de parler" + aVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'arrive à parler" + mkV2V : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2V ; + mkVA : V -> VA ; + mkV2A : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2A ; + mkVQ : V -> VQ ; + mkV2Q : V -> Preposition -> V2Q ; + + mkAS : A -> AS ; + mkA2S : A -> Preposition -> A2S ; + mkAV : A -> Preposition -> AV ; + mkA2V : A -> Preposition -> Preposition -> A2V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated +just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given +as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. +\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ; + AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; +\end{verbatim} + +\commOut{Produced by +gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. +(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} + +== + +\# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude + + +\subsubsection{Swedish Lexical Paradigms} +Aarne Ranta 2003 + +This is an API to the user of the resource grammar +for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming +expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. + +Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are +accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. + +The main difference with \texttt{MorphoSwe.gf} is that the types +referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover +had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather +than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. + +The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: +first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all +regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an +escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. +However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a +separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected +words. + +\begin{verbatim} + resource ParadigmsSwe = + open + (Predef=Predef), + Prelude, + CommonScand, + ResSwe, + MorphoSwe, + CatSwe in { +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Parameters} +To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. + +\begin{verbatim} + oper + Gender : Type ; + + utrum : Gender ; + neutrum : Gender ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over number names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Number : Type ; + + singular : Number ; + plural : Number ; +\end{verbatim} + +To abstract over case names, we define the following. + +\begin{verbatim} + Case : Type ; + + nominative : Case ; + genitive : Case ; +\end{verbatim} + +Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings. + +\begin{verbatim} + Preposition : Type = Str ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Nouns} +Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the +last letter of the second form (if \textit{n}, then \texttt{utrum}, otherwise \texttt{neutrum}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN : (apa,apan,apor,aporna : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular function takes the singular indefinite form and computes the other +forms and the gender by a heuristic. The heuristic is currently +to treat all words ending with \textit{a} like \textit{flicka}, with \textit{e} like \textit{rike}, +and otherwise like \textit{bil}. +If in doubt, use the \texttt{cc} command to test! + +\begin{verbatim} + regN : Str -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +Adding the gender manually greatly improves the correction of \texttt{regN}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +In practice the worst case is often just: give singular and plural indefinite. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk2N : (nyckel,nycklar : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +This heuristic takes just the plural definite form and infers the others. +It does not work if there are changes in the stem. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk1N : (bilarna : Str) -> N ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} +All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns, +such as \textit{fotboll}. + +\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} +Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +The most common preposition is \textit{av}, and the following is a +shortcut for regular, \texttt{nonhuman} relational nouns with \textit{av}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regN2 : Str -> Gender -> N2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to +form other prepositions. + +Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} +In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a +relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and +\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} +and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. + +\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} +Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows + +\begin{verbatim} + regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- John, John's +\end{verbatim} + +Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}. + +\begin{verbatim} + nounPN : N -> PN ; +\end{verbatim} + +To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular +genitive, you can use the worst-case function. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} +Adjectives may need as many as seven forms. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA : (liten, litet, lilla, sma, mindre, minst, minsta : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +The regular pattern works for many adjectives, e.g. those ending +with \textit{ig}. + +\begin{verbatim} + regA : Str -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +Just the comparison forms can be irregular. + +\begin{verbatim} + irregA : (tung,tyngre,tyngst : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +Sometimes just the positive forms are irregular. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk3A : (galen,galet,galna : Str) -> A ; + mk2A : (bred,brett : Str) -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +Comparison forms may be compound (\textit{mera svensk} - \textit{mest svensk}). + +\begin{verbatim} + compoundA : A -> A ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} +Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} +Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position +after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}). + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; + mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; +\end{verbatim} + +Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Prepositions} +A preposition is just a string. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs} +The worst case needs five forms. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV : (supa,super,sup,söp,supit,supen : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The 'regular verb' function is inspired by Lexin. It uses the +present tense indicative form. The value is the first conjugation if the +argument ends with \textit{ar} (\textit{tala} - \textit{talar} - \textit{talade} - \textit{talat}), +the second with \textit{er} (\textit{leka} - \textit{leker} - \textit{lekte} - \textit{lekt}, with the +variations like \textit{gräva}, \textit{vända}, \textit{tyda}, \textit{hyra}), and +the third in other cases (\textit{bo} - \textit{bor} - \textit{bodde} - \textit{bott}). + +\begin{verbatim} + regV : (talar : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +The almost regular verb function needs the infinitive and the preteritum. +It is not really more powerful than the new implementation of +\texttt{regV} based on the indicative form. + +\begin{verbatim} + mk2V : (leka,lekte : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregularSwe}. +In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books. + +\begin{verbatim} + irregV : (dricka, drack, druckit : Str) -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle.} +The particle, such as in \textit{passa på}, is given as a string. + +\begin{verbatim} + partV : V -> Str -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Deponent verbs.} +Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. \textit{hoppas}, some as +reflexive e.g. \textit{ångra sig}. + +\begin{verbatim} + depV : V -> V ; + reflV : V -> V ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} +Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. +(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; + + dirV2 : V -> V2 ; +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} +Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which +the first one or both can be absent. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV3 : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- tala med om + dirV3 : V -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- ge _ till + dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- ge _ _ +\end{verbatim} + +\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} +Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, +questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. + +\begin{verbatim} + mkV0 : V -> V0 ; + mkVS : V -> VS ; + mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ; + mkVV : V -> VV ; + mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ; + mkVA : V -> VA ; + mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ; + mkVQ : V -> VQ ; + mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ; + + mkAS : A -> AS ; + mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ; + mkAV : A -> AV ; + mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ; +\end{verbatim} + +Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated +just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given +as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. +\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. + +\begin{verbatim} + V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ; + AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; +\end{verbatim} + +\end{document} diff --git a/doc/resource.txt b/doc/resource.txt index 2a1690929..555206531 100644 --- a/doc/resource.txt +++ b/doc/resource.txt @@ -1,4 +1,13 @@ The GF Resource Grammar Library +Author: Aarne Ranta +Last update: %%date(%c) + +% NOTE: this is a txt2tags file. +% Create an latex file from this file using: +% txt2tags -ttex --toc gf-formalism.txt + +%!target:tex + This document is about the GF Resource Grammar Library. It presuppose knowledge of GF and its @@ -31,9 +40,9 @@ enough to make the application work, because the noun must be produced in both singular and plural, and in four different cases. By using the resource grammar library, it is enough to write - +``` lin Song = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter - +``` and the eight forms are correctly generated. The resource grammar library contains a complete set of inflectional paradigms (such as regN2 here), enabling the definition of any lexical items. @@ -46,19 +55,19 @@ particularly complex, because the adjectives have to agree in gender, number, and case, and also depend on what determiner is used ("ein Amerikanisches Lied" vs. "das Amerikanische Lied"). All this variation is taken care of by the resource grammar function - +``` fun AdjCN : AP -> CN -> CN - +``` and the resource grammar implementation of the rule adding properties to kinds is - +``` lin PropKind kind prop = AdjCN prop kind - +``` given that - +``` lincat Prop = AP lincat Kind = CN - +``` The resource library API is devided into language-specific and language-independet parts. To put is roughly, - lexicon is language-specific @@ -67,9 +76,9 @@ parts. To put is roughly, Thus, to render the above example in French instead of German, we need to pick a different linearization of Song, - +``` lin Song = regGenN "chanson" feminine - +``` But to linearize PropKind, we can use the very same rule as in German. The resource function AdjCN has different implementations in the two languages, but the application programmer need not care about the difference. @@ -80,7 +89,7 @@ languages, but the application programmer need not care about the difference. To summarize the example, and also give a template for a programmer to work on, here is the complete implementation of a small system with songs and properties. The abstract syntax defines a "domain ontology": - +``` abstract Music = { cat Kind, @@ -90,10 +99,10 @@ The abstract syntax defines a "domain ontology": Song : Kind ; American : Property ; } - +``` The concrete syntax is defined independently of language, by opening two interfaces: the resource Grammar and an application lexicon. - +``` incomplete concrete MusicI of Music = open Grammar, MusicLex in { lincat Kind = CN ; @@ -103,19 +112,19 @@ two interfaces: the resource Grammar and an application lexicon. Song = UseN song_N ; American = PositA american_A ; } - +``` The application lexicon MusicLex has an abstract syntax, that extends the resource category system Cat. - +``` abstract MusicLex = Cat ** { fun song_N : N ; american_A : A ; } - +``` Each language has its own concrete syntax, which opens the inflectional paradigms module for that language: - +``` concrete MusicLexGer of MusicLex = CatGer ** open ParadigmsGer in { lin song_N = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter ; @@ -127,10 +136,10 @@ module for that language: song_N = regGenN "chanson" feminine ; american_A = regA "amricain" ; } - +``` The top-level Music grammars are obtained by instantiating the two interfaces of MusicI: - +``` concrete MusicGer of Music = MusicI with (Grammar = GrammarGer), (MusicLex = MusicLexGer) ; @@ -138,12 +147,12 @@ of MusicI: concrete MusicFre of Music = MusicI with (Grammar = GrammarFre), (MusicLex = MusicLexFre) ; - +``` To localize the system to a new language, all that is needed is two modules, one implementing MusicLex and the other instantiating Music. The latter is completely trivial, whereas the former one involves the choice of correct vocabulary and inflectional paradigms. For instance, Finnish is added as follows: - +``` concrete MusicLexFin of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsFin in { lin song_N = regN "kappale" ; @@ -153,7 +162,7 @@ vocabulary and inflectional paradigms. For instance, Finnish is added as follows concrete MusicFin of Music = MusicI with (Grammar = GrammarFin), (MusicLex = MusicLexFin) ; - +``` More work is of course needed if the language-independent linearizations in MusicI are not satisfactory for some language. The resource grammar guarantees that the linearizations are possible in all languages, in the sense of grammatical, @@ -161,7 +170,7 @@ but they might of course be inadequate for stylistic reasons. Assume, for the sake of argument, that adjectival modification does not sound good in English, but that a relative clause would be preferrable. One can then start as before, - +``` concrete MusicLexEng of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsEng in { lin song_N = regN "song" ; @@ -171,18 +180,18 @@ before, concrete MusicEng0 of Music = MusicI with (Grammar = GrammarEng), (MusicLex = MusicLexEng) ; - +``` The module MusicEng0 would not be used on the top level, however, but another module would be built on top of it, with a restricted import from MusicEng0. MusicEng inherits everything from MusicEng0 except PropKind, and gives its own definition of this function: - +``` concrete MusicEng of Music = MusicEng0 - [PropKind] ** open GrammarEng in { lin PropKind k p = RelCN k (UseRCl TPres ASimul PPos (RelVP IdRP (UseComp (CompAP p)))) ; } - +``` ===Parsing with resource grammars?=== @@ -225,7 +234,7 @@ will often use only restricted inheritance of MusicI. Inflection paradigms are defined separately for each language L in the module ParadigmsL. To test them, the command cc (= compute_concrete) can be used: - +``` > i -retain german/ParadigmsGer.gf > cc regN "Schlange" @@ -246,15 +255,15 @@ can be used: } ; g : Gender = Fem } - +``` For the sake of convenience, every language implements these four paradigms: - +``` oper regN : Str -> N ; -- regular nouns regA : Str -> A : -- regular adjectives regV : Str -> V ; -- regular verbs dirV : V -> V2 ; -- direct transitive verbs - +``` It is often possible to initialize a lexicon by just using these functions, and later revise it by using the more involved paradigms. For instance, in German we cannot use regN "Lied" for Song, because the result would be a @@ -285,36 +294,36 @@ of resource grammars, it is a useful technique for application grammarians to browse the library. To find out what resource function does some particular job, you can just parse a string that exemplifies this job. For instance, to find out how sentences are built using transitive verbs, write - +``` > i english/LangEng.gf > p -cat=Cl -fcfg "she loves him" PredVP (UsePron she_Pron) (ComplV2 love_V2 (UsePron he_Pron)) - +``` Parsing with the English resource grammar has an acceptable speed, but with most languages it takes just too much resources even to build the parser. However, examples parsed in one language can always be linearized into other languages: - +``` > i italian/LangIta.gf > l PredVP (UsePron she_Pron) (ComplV2 love_V2 (UsePron he_Pron)) lo ama - +``` Therefore, one can use the English parser to write an Italian grammar, and also to write a language-independent (incomplete) grammar. One can also parse strings that are bizarre in English but the intended way of expression in another language. For instance, the phrase for "I am hungry" in Italian is literally "I have hunger". This can be built by parsing "I have beer" in LanEng and then writing - +``` lin IamHungry = let beer_N = regGenN "fame" feminine in PredVP (UsePron i_Pron) (ComplV2 have_V2 (DetCN (DetSg MassDet NoOrd) (UseN beer_N))) ; - +``` which uses ParadigmsIta.regGenN. @@ -323,25 +332,25 @@ which uses ParadigmsIta.regGenN. The technique of parsing with the resource grammar can be used in GF source files, endowed with the suffix .gfe ("GF examples"). The suffix tells GF to preprocess the file by replacing all expressions of the form - +``` in Module.Cat "example string" - +``` by the syntax trees obtained by parsing "example string" in Cat in Module. For instance, - +``` lin IamHungry = let beer_N = regGenN "fame" feminine in (in LangEng.Cl "I have beer") ; - +``` will result in the rule displayed in the previous section. The normal binding rules of functional programming (and GF) guarantee that local bindings of identifiers take precedence over constants of the same forms. Thus it is also possible to linearize functions taking arguments in this way: - +``` lin PropKind car_N old_A = in LangEng.CN "old car" ; - +``` However, the technique of example-based grammar writing has some limitations: - Ambiguity. If a string has several parses, the first one is returned, and it may not be the intended one. The other parses are shown in a comment, from @@ -349,17 +358,17 @@ where they must/can be picked manually. - Lexicality. The arguments of a function must be atomic identifiers, and are thus not available for categories that have no lexical items. For instance, the PropKind rule above gives the result - +``` lin PropKind car_N old_A = AdjCN (UseN car_N) (PositA old_A) ; - +``` However, it is possible to write a special lexicon that gives atomic rules for all those categories that can be used as arguments, for instance, - +``` fun cat_CN : CN ; old_AP : AP ; - +``` and then use this lexicon instead of the standard one included in Lang. @@ -381,23 +390,23 @@ To this end, application grammarians may want to write their own views on the resource grammar. An example of this is already provided, in mathematical/Predication. Instead of the NP-VP structure, it permits clause construction directly from verbs and adjectives and their arguments: - +``` predV : V -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x converges" predV2 : V2 -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x intersects y" predV3 : V3 -> NP -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x intersects y at z" predVColl : V -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x and y intersect" predA : A -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x is even" predA2 : A2 -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x is divisible by y" - +``` The implementation of this module is the functor PredicationI: - +``` predV v x = PredVP x (UseV v) ; predV2 v x y = PredVP x (ComplV2 v y) ; predV3 v x y z = PredVP x (ComplV3 v y z) ; predVColl v x y = PredVP (ConjNP and_Conj (BaseNP x y)) (UseV v) ; predA a x = PredVP x (UseComp (CompAP (PositA a))) ; predA2 a x y = PredVP x (UseComp (CompAP (ComplA2 a y))) ; - +``` Of course, Predication can be opened together with Grammar, but using the resulting grammar for parsing can be frustrating, since having both ways of building clauses simultaneously available will produce spurious @@ -420,15 +429,15 @@ The outermost linguistic structure is Text. Texts are composed from Phrases followed by punctuation marks - either of ".", "?" or "!" (with their proper variants in Spanish and Arabic). Here is an example of a Text. - +``` John walks. Why? He doesn't want to sleep! - +``` Phrases are mostly built from Utterances, which in turn are declarative sentences, questions, or imperatives - but there are also "one-word utterances" consisting of noun phrases or other subsentential phrases. Some Phrases are atomic, for instance "yes" and "no". Here are some examples of Phrases. - +``` yes come on, John but John walks @@ -436,15 +445,15 @@ for instance "yes" and "no". Here are some examples of Phrases. don't you know that he is sleeping a glass of wine a glass of wine please - +``` There is no connection between the punctuation marks and the types of utterances. This reflects the fact that the punctuation mark in a real text is selected as a function of the speech act rather than the grammatical form of an utterance. The following text is thus well-formed. - +``` John walks. John walks? John walks! - +``` What is the difference between Phrase and Utterance? Just technical: a Phrase is an Utterance with an optional leading conjunction ("but") and an optional tailing vocative ("John", "please"). @@ -457,7 +466,7 @@ is formed from a Clause, by fixing its Tense, Anteriority, and Polarity. The difference between Sentence and Clause is thus also rather technical. For example, each of the following strings has a distinct syntax tree in the category Sentence: - +``` John walks John doesn't walk John walked @@ -467,13 +476,13 @@ in the category Sentence: John will walk John won't walk ... - +``` whereas in the category Clause all of them are just different forms of the same tree. The following syntax tree of the Text "John walks." gives an overview of the structural levels. - +``` Node Constructor Value type Other constructors ----------------------------------------------------------- 1. TFullStop Text TQuestMark @@ -491,9 +500,9 @@ Node Constructor Value type Other constructors 13. walk_V)))) V sleep_V 14. NoVoc) Voc please_Voc 15. TEmpty Text - +``` Here are some examples of the results of changing constructors. - +``` 1. TFullStop -> TQuestMark John walks? 3. NoPConj -> but_PConj But John walks. 6. TPres -> TPast John walked. @@ -502,14 +511,18 @@ Here are some examples of the results of changing constructors. 11. john_PN -> mary_PN Mary walks. 13. walk_V -> sleep_V John sleeps. 14. NoVoc -> please_Voc John sleeps please. - +``` All constructors cannot of course be changed so freely, because the resulting tree would not remain well-typed. Here are some changes involving many constructors: - - 4- 5. UttS (UseCl ...) -> UttQS (UseQCl (... QuestCl ...)) Does John walk? -10-11. UsePN john_PN -> UsePron we_Pron We walk. -12-13. UseV walk_V -> ComplV2 love_V2 this_NP John loves this. +``` + 4- 5. UttS (UseCl ...) -> + UttQS (UseQCl (... QuestCl ...)) Does John walk? +10-11. UsePN john_PN -> + UsePron we_Pron We walk. +12-13. UseV walk_V -> + ComplV2 love_V2 this_NP John loves this. +``` ===Parts of sentences=== @@ -520,13 +533,13 @@ to Sentences, lines 5-13. At this level, the major categories are NP (Noun Phrase) and VP (Verb Phrase). A Clause typically consists of just an NP and a VP. The internal structure of both NP and VP can be very complex, and these categories are mutually recursive: not only can a VP contain an NP, - +``` [VP loves [NP Mary]] - +``` but an NP can also contain a VP - +``` [NP every man [RS who [VP walks]]] - +``` (a labelled bracketing like this is of course just a rough approximation of a GF syntax tree, but still a useful device of exposition). @@ -591,13 +604,124 @@ to the module Cat, which defines the type system common to the other modules. For instance, the types NP and VP are defined in Cat, and the module Verb only needs to know what is given in Cat, not what is given in Noun. To implement a rule such as - +``` Verb.ComplV2 : V2 -> NP -> VP - +``` it is enough to know the linearization type of NP (as well as those of V2 and VP, all given in Cat). It is not necessary to know what ways there are to build NPs (given in Noun), since all these ways must -conform to the linearization type defined in Cat. +conform to the linearization type defined in Cat. Thus the format of +category-specific modules is as follows: +``` + abstract Adjective = Cat ** {...} + abstract Noun = Cat ** {...} + abstract Verb = Cat ** {...} +``` + + +===Top-level grammar and lexicon=== + +The module Grammar collects all the category-specific modules into +a complete grammar: +``` + abstract Grammar = + Adjective, Noun, Verb, ..., Structural, Idiom +``` +The module Structural is a lexicon of structural words (function words), +such as determiners. +The module Idiom is a collection of idiomatic structures whose +implementation is very language-dependent. An example is existential +structures ("there is", "es gibt", "il y a", etc). + +The module Lang combines Grammar with a Lexicon of ca. 350 content words: +``` + abstract Lang = Grammar, Lexicon +``` +Using Lang instead of Grammar as a library may give the advantage of prociding +for free some words needed in an application. But its main purpose is to +help testing the resource library. It does not seem possible to maintain +a general-purpose multilingual lexicon, and this is the form that the module +Lexicon has. +===Language-specific syntactic structures=== + +The API collected in Grammar has been designed to be implementable for +all languages in the resource package. It does contain some rules that +are strange or superfluous in some languages; for instance, the distinction +between definite and indefinite articles does not apply to Finnish and Russian. +But such rules are still easy to implement: they only create some superfluous +ambiguity in the languages in question. + +But the library makes no claim that all languages should have exactly the same +abstract syntax. The common API is therefore extended by language-dependent +rules. The top level of each languages looks as follows (with English as example): +``` + abstract English = Grammar, ExtraEngAbs, DictEngAbs +``` +where ExtraEngAbs is a collection of syntactic structures specific to English, +and DictEngAbs is an English dictionary (at the moment, it consists of IrregEngAbs, +the irregular verbs of English). Each of these language-specific grammars has +the potential to grow into a full-scale grammar of the language. These grammar +can also be used as libraries, but the possibility of using functors is lost. + +To give a better overview of language-specific structures, modules like ExtraEngAbs +are built from a language-independent module ExtraAbs by restricted inheritance: +``` + abstract ExtraEngAbs = Extra [f,g,...] +``` +Thus any category and function in Extra may be shared by a subset of all +languages. One can see this set-up as a matrix, which tells what Extra structures +are implemented in what languages. For the common API in Grammar, the matrix +is filled with 1's (everything is implemented in every language). + +Language-specific extensions and the use of restricted +inheritance is a recent addition to the resource grammar library, and +has only been exploited in a very small scale so far. + + +==API Documentation== + +===Top-level modules=== + +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Grammar.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Lang.txt + + +===Type system=== + +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Cat.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Common.txt + + +===Phrase category modules=== + +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Adjective.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Adverb.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Conjunction.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Idiom.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Noun.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Numeral.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/OldLexicon.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Phrase.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Question.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Relative.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Sentence.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Structural.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Text.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/abstract/Verb.txt + + +===Inflectional paradigms=== + +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/danish/ParadigmsDan.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/english/ParadigmsEng.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/finnish/ParadigmsFin.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/french/ParadigmsFre.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/german/ParadigmsGer.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/italian/ParadigmsIta.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/norwegian/ParadigmsNor.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/russian/ParadigmsRus.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/spanish/ParadigmsSpa.txt +%!include: ../lib/resource-1.0/swedish/ParadigmsSwe.txt diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Adjective.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Adjective.html index 0ffaf0608..fb54a7e14 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Adjective.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Adjective.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

Adjectives and adjectival phrases

-Last update: 2006-01-10 20:56:21 CET
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:38 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Adjectives and adjectival phrases

     abstract Adjective = Cat ** {
     
diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Adverb.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Adverb.html
index 517e2207f..2dd71c976 100644
--- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Adverb.html
+++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Adverb.html
@@ -6,12 +6,17 @@
 
 
 Adverbs and adverbial phrases

 
-Last update: 2006-05-23 22:22:34 CEST

+Author: 

+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:38 2006
 

 
 

 

 

+  
+
 

 

 

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by
 gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
 (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.
 

+
+
Adverbs and adverbial phrases

 
     abstract Adverb = Cat ** {
     
diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Cat.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Cat.html
index 08eb6b3ee..f047efd47 100644
--- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Cat.html
+++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Cat.html
@@ -6,23 +6,27 @@
 
 
 The category system

 
-Last update: 2006-05-28 19:11:48 CEST

+Author: 

+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:38 2006
 

 
 

 

 

+  
 
 

 

@@ -32,6 +36,8 @@ Produced by
 gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
 (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.
 

+
+
The category system

 

 The category system is central to the library in the sense
 that the other modules (Adjective, Adverb, Noun, Verb etc)
@@ -58,7 +64,7 @@ are defined on Conjunction and only used locally there.
       cat
 

 

-
+
 
Sentences and clauses

 

 Constructed in Sentence, and also in
@@ -73,7 +79,7 @@ Constructed in Sentence, and also in
         Imp ;   -- imperative                          e.g. "look at this"

- +

Questions and interrogatives

Constructed in Question. @@ -85,7 +91,7 @@ Constructed in Question. IDet ; -- interrogative determiner e.g. "which"

- +

Relative clauses and pronouns

Constructed in Relative. @@ -95,7 +101,7 @@ Constructed in Relative. RP ; -- relative pronoun e.g. "in which"

- +

Verb phrases

Constructed in Verb. @@ -105,7 +111,7 @@ Constructed in Verb. Comp ; -- complement of copula, such as AP e.g. "very warm"

- +

Adjectival phrases

Constructed in Adjective. @@ -114,7 +120,7 @@ Constructed in Adjective. AP ; -- adjectival phrase e.g. "very warm"

- +

Nouns and noun phrases

Constructed in Noun. @@ -141,7 +147,7 @@ as defined in Noun. Ord ; -- ordinal number (used in Det) e.g. "seventh"

- +

Numerals

Constructed in Numeral. @@ -150,7 +156,7 @@ Constructed in Numeral. Numeral;-- cardinal or ordinal, e.g. "five/fifth"

- +

Structural words

Constructed in Structural. @@ -162,7 +168,7 @@ Constructed in Structural. Prep ; -- preposition, or just case e.g. "in"

- +

Words of open classes

These are constructed in Lexicon and in diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Common.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Common.html index 584fdff50..c6a9669a4 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Common.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Common.html @@ -6,17 +6,21 @@

Infrastructure with common implementations.

-Last update: 2006-05-28 19:11:48 CEST
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:38 2006

+

@@ -26,6 +30,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Infrastructure with common implementations.

This module defines the categories that uniformly have the linearization {s : Str} in all languages. @@ -42,27 +48,33 @@ Romance languages. cat

- +

Top-level units

Constructed in Text: Text. 

         Text ;  -- text consisting of several phrases  e.g. "He is here. Why?"
-        Phr ;   -- phrase in a text                    e.g. "But get out please."

-Constructed in Phrase: Phr and +Constructed in Phrase: 

+        Phr ;   -- phrase in a text                    e.g. "but be quiet please"
         Utt ;   -- sentence, question, word...         e.g. "be quiet"
         Voc ;   -- vocative or "please"                e.g. "my darling"
         PConj ; -- phrase-beginning conj.              e.g. "therefore"
+
+

+

+Constructed in Sentence: +

+
         SC ;    -- embedded sentence or question       e.g. "that it rains"

- +

Adverbs

Constructed in Adverb. @@ -77,7 +89,7 @@ Many adverbs are constructed in Structural. CAdv ; -- comparative adverb e.g. "more"

- +

Tense, polarity, and anteriority

         Tense ; -- tense: present, past, future, conditional
diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Conjunction.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Conjunction.html
index 54a3da95a..48f5b2b35 100644
--- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Conjunction.html
+++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Conjunction.html
@@ -6,17 +6,21 @@
 
 
 Coordination

 
-Last update: 2006-01-20 22:04:10 CET

+Author: 

+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:39 2006
 

 
 

 

 

+  
 
 

 

@@ -26,6 +30,8 @@ Produced by
 gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
 (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.
 

+
+
Coordination

 

 Coordination is defined for many different categories; here is
 a sample. The rules apply to lists of two or more elements,
@@ -45,7 +51,7 @@ compatibility with API 0.9 is needed, use
     abstract Conjunction = Cat ** {

- +

Rules

       fun
@@ -60,7 +66,7 @@ compatibility with API 0.9 is needed, use
         DConjAdv : DConj -> [Adv] -> Adv; -- "both badly and slowly"

- +

Categories

These categories are only used in this module. @@ -73,7 +79,7 @@ These categories are only used in this module. [AP]{2} ;

- +

List constructors

The list constructors are derived from the list notation and therefore diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Grammar.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Grammar.html index b0bbc69d6..f68e408bd 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Grammar.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Grammar.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

The Main Module of the Resource Grammar

-Last update: 2006-06-01 22:30:20 CEST
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:39 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

The Main Module of the Resource Grammar

This grammar a collection of the different grammar modules, To test the resource, import Lang, which also contains diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Idiom.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Idiom.html index 417c63e92..665fb7645 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Idiom.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Idiom.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

Idiomatic expressions

-Last update: 2006-06-01 22:30:20 CEST
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:39 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Idiomatic expressions

     abstract Idiom = Cat ** {
diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Lang.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Lang.html index b12ee728b..751aa89e8 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Lang.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Lang.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

The Main Module of the Resource Grammar

-Last update: 2006-06-07 18:26:44 CEST
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:40 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

The Main Module of the Resource Grammar

This grammar is just a collection of the different modules, and the one that can be imported when one wants to test the diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Mathematical.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Mathematical.html index d0d812f52..83e6bf82f 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Mathematical.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Mathematical.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

The Mathematics API to the Resource Grammar

-Last update: 2006-02-25 21:36:45 CET
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:44 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

The Mathematics API to the Resource Grammar

This grammar is a collection of the different modules. It differs from Lang in two main ways: diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Multi.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Multi.html index 65eb56347..4b1e2b9a4 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Multi.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Multi.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

Multimodal additions to the resource grammar library

-Last update: 2006-05-23 23:36:59 CEST
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:44 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Multimodal additions to the resource grammar library

     abstract Multi = Lang ** {
     
diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Noun.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Noun.html
index fe9b326cf..87c0d9e89 100644
--- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Noun.html
+++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Noun.html
@@ -6,18 +6,22 @@
 
 
 The construction of nouns, noun phrases, and determiners

 
-Last update: 2006-05-23 23:27:56 CEST

+Author: 

+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:40 2006
 

 
 

 

 

+  
 
 

 

@@ -27,11 +31,13 @@ Produced by
 gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
 (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.
 

+
+
The construction of nouns, noun phrases, and determiners

 
     abstract Noun = Cat ** {
 

 

-
+
 
Noun phrases

 

 The three main types of noun phrases are
@@ -66,7 +72,7 @@ verb or by an adverb.
         AdvNP   : NP -> Adv -> NP ;    -- Paris at midnight

- +

Determiners

The determiner has a fine-grained structure, in which a 'nucleus' @@ -160,7 +166,7 @@ in semantically odd expressions.

Other determiners are defined in Structural.

- +

Common nouns

Simple nouns can be used as nouns outright. @@ -206,7 +212,7 @@ to decide. Sentential complements are defined in Verb. SentCN : CN -> SC -> CN ; -- fact that John smokes, question if he does

- +

Apposition

This is certainly overgenerating. diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Numeral.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Numeral.html index 7464685c8..2139cd31e 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Numeral.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Numeral.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

Numerals

-Last update: 2006-01-17 17:56:17 CET
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:40 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Numerals

This grammar defines numerals from 1 to 999999. The implementations are adapted from the diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsDan.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsDan.html index b6762915a..72b0a5bcd 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsDan.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsDan.html @@ -2,52 +2,64 @@ - Danish Lexical Paradigms -

Danish Lexical Paradigms

-Last update: 2006-06-01 22:30:20 CEST

+

+Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:42 2006 +

+

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+== +

+

+# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude +

+ +

Danish Lexical Paradigms

+

Aarne Ranta 2003

@@ -85,7 +97,7 @@ words. CatDan in {

- +

Parameters

To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. @@ -125,7 +137,7 @@ Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings. Preposition : Type = Str ;

- +

Nouns

Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the @@ -168,13 +180,13 @@ indefinite mk3N : (bil,bilen,biler : Str) -> N ;

- +

Compound nouns

All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns, such as fotboll.

- +

Relational nouns

Relational nouns (daughter of x) need a preposition. @@ -202,7 +214,7 @@ Three-place relational nouns (the connection from x to y) need two prepos mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;

- +

Relational common noun phrases

In some cases, you may want to make a complex CN into a @@ -210,7 +222,7 @@ relational noun (e.g. the old town hall of). However, N2 and N3 are purely lexical categories. But you can use the AdvCN and PrepNP constructions to build phrases like this.

- +

Proper names and noun phrases

Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows @@ -234,7 +246,7 @@ genitive, you can use the worst-case function. mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ;

- +

Adjectives

Non-comparison one-place adjectives need three forms: @@ -257,7 +269,7 @@ In most cases, two forms are enough. mk2A : (stor,stort : Str) -> A ;

- +

Two-place adjectives

Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. @@ -304,7 +316,7 @@ long adjective, the following pattern is used: compoundA : A -> A ; -- -/mer/mest norsk

- +

Adverbs

Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position @@ -322,7 +334,7 @@ Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;

- +

Prepositions

A preposition is just a string. @@ -331,7 +343,7 @@ A preposition is just a string. mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;

- +

Verbs

The worst case needs six forms. @@ -362,7 +374,7 @@ In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books. irregV : (drikke, drakk, drukket : Str) -> V ;

- +

Verbs with //vre// as auxiliary

By default, the auxiliary is have. This function changes it to vre. @@ -371,7 +383,7 @@ By default, the auxiliary is have. This function changes it to v vaereV : V -> V ;

- +

Verbs with a particle

The particle, such as in switch on, is given as a string. @@ -380,7 +392,7 @@ The particle, such as in switch on, is given as a string. partV : V -> Str -> V ;

- +

Deponent verbs

Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. hoppas, some as @@ -391,7 +403,7 @@ reflexive e.g. reflV : V -> V ;

- +

Two-place verbs

Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. @@ -403,7 +415,7 @@ Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. dirV2 : V -> V2 ;

- +

Three-place verbs

Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which @@ -415,7 +427,7 @@ the first one or both can be absent. dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_

- +

Other complement patterns

Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, @@ -449,7 +461,7 @@ as an adverb. Likewise AS, A2S, AV, A2V are just A. AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;

- +

Definitions of the paradigms

The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsEng.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsEng.html index 79a8eb18d..8d3ba8d24 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsEng.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsEng.html @@ -2,51 +2,63 @@ - English Lexical Paradigms -

English Lexical Paradigms

-Last update: 2006-04-21 16:38:25 CEST

+

+Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:42 2006 +

+

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+== +

+

+# -path=.:../abstract:../../prelude:../common +

+ +

English Lexical Paradigms

+

Aarne Ranta 2003--2005

@@ -85,7 +97,7 @@ The following modules are presupposed: in {

- +

Parameters

To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. @@ -126,7 +138,7 @@ Prepositions are used in many-argument functions for rection. Preposition : Type ;

- +

Nouns

Worst case: give all four forms and the semantic gender. @@ -160,7 +172,7 @@ function: genderN : Gender -> N -> N ;

- +

Compound nouns

A compound noun ia an uninflected string attached to an inflected noun, @@ -170,7 +182,7 @@ such as baby boom, chief executive officer. compoundN : Str -> N -> N ;

- +

Relational nouns

Relational nouns (daughter of x) need a preposition. @@ -198,7 +210,7 @@ Three-place relational nouns (the connection from x to y) need two prepos mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;

- +

Relational common noun phrases

In some cases, you may want to make a complex CN into a @@ -209,7 +221,7 @@ relational noun (e.g. the old town hall of). cnN3 : CN -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;

- +

Proper names and noun phrases

Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows @@ -233,7 +245,7 @@ genitive, you can use the worst-case function. mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ;

- +

Adjectives

Non-comparison one-place adjectives need two forms: one for @@ -251,7 +263,7 @@ even for cases with the variation happy - happily. regA : Str -> A ;

- +

Two-place adjectives

Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. @@ -301,7 +313,7 @@ From a given ADeg, it is possible to get back to A. adegA : ADeg -> A ;

- +

Adverbs

Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position @@ -319,7 +331,7 @@ Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;

- +

Prepositions

A preposition as used for rection in the lexicon, as well as to @@ -333,7 +345,7 @@ build PPs in the resource API, just requires a string.

(These two functions are synonyms.)

- +

Verbs

Except for be, the worst case needs five forms: the infinitive and @@ -372,7 +384,7 @@ duplication in the present participle. irregDuplV : (get, got, gotten : Str) -> V ;

- +

Verbs with a particle.

The particle, such as in switch on, is given as a string. @@ -381,7 +393,7 @@ The particle, such as in switch on, is given as a string. partV : V -> Str -> V ;

- +

Reflexive verbs

By default, verbs are not reflexive; this function makes them that. @@ -390,7 +402,7 @@ By default, verbs are not reflexive; this function makes them that. reflV : V -> V ;

- +

Two-place verbs

Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. @@ -402,7 +414,7 @@ Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. dirV2 : V -> V2 ;

- +

Three-place verbs

Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which @@ -414,7 +426,7 @@ the first one or both can be absent. dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_

- +

Other complement patterns

Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, @@ -448,7 +460,7 @@ as an adverb. Likewise AS, A2S, AV, A2V are just A. AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;

- +

Definitions of paradigms

The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsFin.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsFin.html index fb0f03a79..f7922bc5a 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsFin.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsFin.html @@ -2,36 +2,48 @@ - Finnish Lexical Paradigms -

Finnish Lexical Paradigms

-Last update: 2006-03-07 21:08:18 CET

+

+Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:42 2006 +

+

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+== +

+

+# -path=.:../abstract:../common:../../prelude +

+ +

Finnish Lexical Paradigms

+

Aarne Ranta 2003--2005

@@ -77,7 +89,7 @@ flags optimize=all ; flags optimize=noexpand ;

- +

Parameters

To abstract over gender, number, and (some) case names, @@ -117,7 +129,7 @@ just a case, or a pre/postposition and a case. casePrep : Case -> Prep ; -- adessive

- +

Nouns

The worst case gives ten forms and the semantic gender. @@ -317,7 +329,7 @@ The plural forms are filtered away by the compiler. mkNP : N -> Number -> NP ;

- +

Adjectives

Non-comparison one-place adjectives are just like nouns. @@ -349,7 +361,7 @@ The regular adjectives are based on regN in the positive. regA : (punainen : Str) -> A ;

- +

Verbs

The grammar does not cover the potential mood and some nominal @@ -455,7 +467,7 @@ But this is taken care of by ClauseFin. dirV2 : V -> V2 ;

- +

Three-place verbs

Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which @@ -467,7 +479,7 @@ the first one or both can be absent. dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- acc, allat

- +

Other complement patterns

Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsFre.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsFre.html index aa106d67c..51c1b1fc6 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsFre.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsFre.html @@ -2,49 +2,61 @@ - French Lexical Paradigms -

French Lexical Paradigms

-Last update: 2006-03-07 21:08:17 CET

+

+Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:43 2006 +

+

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+== +

+

+# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude +

+ +

French Lexical Paradigms

+

Aarne Ranta 2003

@@ -84,7 +96,7 @@ words. flags optimize=all ;

- +

Parameters

To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. @@ -123,7 +135,7 @@ amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' de and the mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;

- +

Nouns

Worst case: give both two forms and the gender. @@ -153,7 +165,7 @@ Adding gender information widens the scope of the foregoing function. regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ;

- +

Compound nouns

Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but @@ -165,7 +177,7 @@ they are frequent in lexica. compN : N -> Str -> N ;

- +

Relational nouns

Relational nouns (fille de x) need a case and a preposition. @@ -190,7 +202,7 @@ Three-place relational nouns (la connection de x mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;

- +

Relational common noun phrases

In some cases, you may want to make a complex CN into a @@ -198,7 +210,7 @@ relational noun (e.g. the old town hall of). However, N2 and N3 are purely lexical categories. But you can use the AdvCN and PrepNP constructions to build phrases like this.

- +

Proper names and noun phrases

Proper names need a string and a gender. @@ -215,7 +227,7 @@ you can use the worst-case function. mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ;

- +

Adjectives

Non-comparison one-place adjectives need four forms in the worst @@ -246,7 +258,7 @@ provided. prefA : A -> A ;

- +

Two-place adjectives

Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. @@ -255,7 +267,7 @@ Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;

- +

Comparison adjectives

Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two @@ -281,7 +293,7 @@ provided. prefA : A -> A ;

- +

Adverbs

Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position @@ -305,7 +317,7 @@ Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;

- +

Verbs

Irregular verbs are given in the module VerbsFre. @@ -342,7 +354,7 @@ To change it to reflV : V -> V ;

- +

Two-place verbs

Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. @@ -361,7 +373,7 @@ You can reuse a V2 verb in V. v2V : V2 -> V ;

- +

Three-place verbs

Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which @@ -373,7 +385,7 @@ the first one or both can be absent. dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- donner,_,_

- +

Other complement patterns

Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, @@ -409,7 +421,7 @@ as an adverb. Likewise AS, A2S, AV, A2V are just A. AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;

- +

Definitions of the paradigms

The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsGer.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsGer.html index 682c4895e..ef042f885 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsGer.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsGer.html @@ -34,13 +34,20 @@

-Last update: 2006-01-20 22:04:10 CET +Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:43 2006

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+

+== +

+

+# -path=.:../common:../abstract:../../prelude +

German Lexical Paradigms

diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsIta.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsIta.html index f7da3a65d..a81f78bc2 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsIta.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsIta.html @@ -2,49 +2,61 @@ - Italian Lexical Paradigms -

Italian Lexical Paradigms

-Last update: 2006-02-22 19:06:50 CET

+

+Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:43 2006 +

+

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+== +

+

+# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude +

+ +

Italian Lexical Paradigms

+

Aarne Ranta 2003

@@ -85,7 +97,7 @@ words. flags optimize=all ;

- +

Parameters

To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. @@ -124,7 +136,7 @@ amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' de and the mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;

- +

Nouns

Worst case: give both two forms and the gender. @@ -151,7 +163,7 @@ To force a different gender, use one of the following functions. femN : N -> N ;

- +

Compound nouns

Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but @@ -163,7 +175,7 @@ they are frequent in lexica. compN : N -> Str -> N ;

- +

Relational nouns

Relational nouns (figlio di x) need a case and a preposition. @@ -188,7 +200,7 @@ Three-place relational nouns (la connessione di x a y) need two prepositi mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;

- +

Relational common noun phrases

In some cases, you may want to make a complex CN into a @@ -196,7 +208,7 @@ relational noun (e.g. the old town hall of). However, N2 and N3 are purely lexical categories. But you can use the AdvCN and PrepNP constructions to build phrases like this.

- +

Proper names and noun phrases

Proper names need a string and a gender. @@ -213,7 +225,7 @@ you can use the worst-case function. mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ;

- +

Adjectives

Non-comparison one-place adjectives need five forms in the worst @@ -241,7 +253,7 @@ provided. prefA : A -> A ;

- +

Two-place adjectives

Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. @@ -250,7 +262,7 @@ Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;

- +

Comparison adjectives

Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two @@ -276,7 +288,7 @@ with comparison by plus. regADeg : Str -> A ;

- +

Adverbs

Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position @@ -300,7 +312,7 @@ Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;

- +

Verbs

Regular verbs are ones with the infinitive er or ir, the @@ -331,7 +343,7 @@ Reflexive implies essere. reflV : V -> V ;

- +

Two-place verbs

Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. @@ -350,7 +362,7 @@ You can reuse a V2 verb in V. v2V : V2 -> V ;

- +

Three-place verbs

Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which @@ -362,7 +374,7 @@ the first one or both can be absent. dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- donner,_,_

- +

Other complement patterns

Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, @@ -398,7 +410,7 @@ as an adverb. Likewise AS, A2S, AV, A2V are just A. AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;

- +

The definitions of the paradigms

The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsNor.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsNor.html index 3afa0ae47..9608ffdb5 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsNor.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsNor.html @@ -2,52 +2,64 @@ - Norwegian Lexical Paradigms -

Norwegian Lexical Paradigms

-Last update: 2006-06-01 22:30:20 CEST

+

+Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:43 2006 +

+

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+== +

+

+# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude +

+ +

Norwegian Lexical Paradigms

+

Aarne Ranta 2003

@@ -85,7 +97,7 @@ words. CatNor in {

- +

Parameters

To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. @@ -126,7 +138,7 @@ Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings. Preposition : Type = Str ;

- +

Nouns

Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the @@ -162,13 +174,13 @@ gender is computed from the definite form. mk2N : (bil,bilen : Str) -> N ;

- +

Compound nouns

All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns, such as fotboll.

- +

Relational nouns

Relational nouns (daughter of x) need a preposition. @@ -196,7 +208,7 @@ Three-place relational nouns (the connection from x to y) need two prepos mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;

- +

Relational common noun phrases

In some cases, you may want to make a complex CN into a @@ -204,7 +216,7 @@ relational noun (e.g. the old town hall of). However, N2 and N3 are purely lexical categories. But you can use the AdvCN and PrepNP constructions to build phrases like this.

- +

Proper names and noun phrases

Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows @@ -228,7 +240,7 @@ genitive, you can use the worst-case function. mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ;

- +

Adjectives

Non-comparison one-place adjectives need three forms: @@ -251,7 +263,7 @@ In most cases, two forms are enough. mk2A : (stor,stort : Str) -> A ;

- +

Two-place adjectives

Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. @@ -298,7 +310,7 @@ long adjective, the following pattern is used: compoundA : A -> A ; -- -/mer/mest norsk

- +

Adverbs

Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position @@ -316,7 +328,7 @@ Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;

- +

Prepositions

A preposition is just a string. @@ -325,7 +337,7 @@ A preposition is just a string. mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;

- +

Verbs

The worst case needs six forms. @@ -356,7 +368,7 @@ In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books. irregV : (drikke, drakk, drukket : Str) -> V ;

- +

Verbs with //vre// as auxiliary

By default, the auxiliary is have. This function changes it to vre. @@ -365,7 +377,7 @@ By default, the auxiliary is have. This function changes it to v vaereV : V -> V ;

- +

Verbs with a particle.

The particle, such as in switch on, is given as a string. @@ -374,7 +386,7 @@ The particle, such as in switch on, is given as a string. partV : V -> Str -> V ;

- +

Deponent verbs.

Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. hoppas, some as @@ -385,7 +397,7 @@ reflexive e.g. reflV : V -> V ;

- +

Two-place verbs

Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. @@ -397,7 +409,7 @@ Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. dirV2 : V -> V2 ;

- +

Three-place verbs

Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which @@ -409,7 +421,7 @@ the first one or both can be absent. dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_

- +

Other complement patterns

Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, @@ -443,7 +455,7 @@ as an adverb. Likewise AS, A2S, AV, A2V are just A. AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;

- +

Definitions of the paradigms

The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsRus.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsRus.html index 87064669c..97d85fbfa 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsRus.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsRus.html @@ -2,33 +2,45 @@ - Russian Lexical Paradigms -

Russian Lexical Paradigms

-Last update: 2006-05-20 11:51:24 CEST

+

+Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:43 2006 +

+

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+== +

+

+# -path=.:../abstract:../../prelude:../common +

+ +

Russian Lexical Paradigms

+

Janna Khegai 2003--2005

@@ -70,7 +82,7 @@ The following modules are presupposed: flags coding=utf8 ;

- +

Parameters

To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. @@ -110,7 +122,7 @@ To abstract over number names, we define the following. plural : Number ;

- +

Nouns

Best case: indeclinabe nouns: кофе, пальто, ВУЗ. @@ -142,6 +154,14 @@ since there are a lot of exceptions and the gain is just one form less.

+The regular function captures the variants for some popular nouns +endings below: +

+
+      regN : Str -> N ;
+
+

+

Here are some common patterns. The list is far from complete. Feminine patterns.

@@ -213,7 +233,7 @@ On the top level, it is maybe CN that is used rather than N

- +

Adjectives

Non-comparison (only positive degree) one-place adjectives need 28 (4 by 7) @@ -230,6 +250,14 @@ Notice that 4 short forms, which exist for some adjectives are not included in the current description, otherwise there would be 32 forms for positive degree. mkA : ( : Str) -> A ; +The regular function captures the variants for some popular adjective +endings below: +

+
+       regA : Str -> Str -> A ;
+
+

+

Invariable adjective is a special case. 

@@ -269,7 +297,7 @@ On top level, there are adjectival phrases. The most common case is
 just to use a one-place adjective. 
 ap : A  -> IsPostfixAdj -> AP ;
 

-
+
 
Adverbs

 

 Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position
@@ -279,7 +307,7 @@ after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. always).
       mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;

- +

Verbs

In our lexicon description (Verbum) there are 62 forms: @@ -342,10 +370,10 @@ between stem and ending lies it is sufficient to compare first person from with second person form: я люб-лю, ты люб-ишь. Stems shoud be the same. So the definition for verb любить looks like: -mkRegVerb Imperfective Second люб лю любил люби любить; +regV Imperfective Second люб лю любил люби любить; 

-       mkRegVerb :Aspect -> Conjugation -> (_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> V ; 
+       regV :Aspect -> Conjugation -> (_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> V ;

@@ -361,9 +389,9 @@ Two-place verbs, and the special case with direct object. Notice that a particle can be included in a V. 

-       mkTV     : V   -> Str -> Case -> V2 ;   -- "войти в дом"; "в", accusative
+       mkV2     : V   -> Str -> Case -> V2 ;   -- "войти в дом"; "в", accusative
        mkV3  : V -> Str -> Str -> Case -> Case -> V3 ; -- "сложить письмо в конверт"
-       tvDir    : V -> V2 ;                    -- "видеть", "любить"
+       dirV2    : V -> V2 ;                    -- "видеть", "любить"
        tvDirDir : V -> V3 ;

diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsSpa.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsSpa.html index 6cc039bb7..f4ea81d39 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsSpa.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsSpa.html @@ -2,49 +2,61 @@ - Spanish Lexical Paradigms -

Spanish Lexical Paradigms

-Last update: 2006-03-14 11:21:47 CET

+

+Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:43 2006 +

+

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+== +

+

+# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude +

+ +

Spanish Lexical Paradigms

+

Aarne Ranta 2003

@@ -82,7 +94,7 @@ escape to construct the most irregular words of type C. flags optimize=all ;

- +

Parameters

To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. @@ -121,7 +133,7 @@ amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' de and the mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;

- +

Nouns

Worst case: two forms (singular + plural), @@ -152,7 +164,7 @@ To force a different gender, use one of the following functions. femN : N -> N ;

- +

Compound nouns

Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but @@ -164,7 +176,7 @@ they are frequent in lexica. compN : N -> Str -> N ;

- +

Relational nouns

Relational nouns (fille de x) need a case and a preposition. @@ -189,7 +201,7 @@ Three-place relational nouns (la connessione di x a y) need two prepositi mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;

- +

Relational common noun phrases

In some cases, you may want to make a complex CN into a @@ -197,7 +209,7 @@ relational noun (e.g. the old town hall of). However, N2 and N3 are purely lexical categories. But you can use the AdvCN and PrepNP constructions to build phrases like this.

- +

Proper names and noun phrases

Proper names need a string and a gender. @@ -214,7 +226,7 @@ you can use the worst-case function. mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ;

- +

Adjectives

Non-comparison one-place adjectives need five forms in the worst @@ -243,7 +255,7 @@ provided. prefA : A -> A ;

- +

Two-place adjectives

Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. @@ -252,7 +264,7 @@ Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;

- +

Comparison adjectives

Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two @@ -278,7 +290,7 @@ with comparison by mas. regADeg : Str -> A ;

- +

Adverbs

Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position @@ -302,7 +314,7 @@ Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;

- +

Verbs

Regular verbs are ones inflected like cortar, deber, or vivir. @@ -338,7 +350,7 @@ in masculine singular form as second argument. special_ppV : V -> Str -> V ;

- +

Two-place verbs

Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. @@ -357,7 +369,7 @@ You can reuse a V2 verb in V. v2V : V2 -> V ;

- +

Three-place verbs

Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which @@ -369,7 +381,7 @@ the first one or both can be absent. dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- donner,_,_

- +

Other complement patterns

Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, @@ -405,7 +417,7 @@ as an adverb. Likewise AS, A2S, AV, A2V are just A. AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;

- +

The definitions of the paradigms

The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsSwe.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsSwe.html index 5203e8833..662e80424 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsSwe.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/ParadigmsSwe.html @@ -2,51 +2,63 @@ - Swedish Lexical Paradigms -

Swedish Lexical Paradigms

-Last update: 2006-06-01 22:30:20 CEST

+

+Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:44 2006 +

+

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+== +

+

+# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude +

+ +

Swedish Lexical Paradigms

+

Aarne Ranta 2003

@@ -84,7 +96,7 @@ words. CatSwe in {

- +

Parameters

To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. @@ -124,7 +136,7 @@ Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings. Preposition : Type = Str ;

- +

Nouns

Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the @@ -167,13 +179,13 @@ It does not work if there are changes in the stem. mk1N : (bilarna : Str) -> N ;

- +

Compound nouns

All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns, such as fotboll.

- +

Relational nouns

Relational nouns (daughter of x) need a preposition. @@ -201,7 +213,7 @@ Three-place relational nouns (the connection from x to y) need two prepos mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;

- +

Relational common noun phrases

In some cases, you may want to make a complex CN into a @@ -209,7 +221,7 @@ relational noun (e.g. the old town hall of). However, N2 and N3 are purely lexical categories. But you can use the AdvCN and PrepNP constructions to build phrases like this.

- +

Proper names and noun phrases

Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows @@ -233,7 +245,7 @@ genitive, you can use the worst-case function. mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ;

- +

Adjectives

Adjectives may need as many as seven forms. @@ -272,7 +284,7 @@ Comparison forms may be compound (mera svensk - mest svensk). compoundA : A -> A ;

- +

Two-place adjectives

Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. @@ -281,7 +293,7 @@ Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;

- +

Adverbs

Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position @@ -299,7 +311,7 @@ Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;

- +

Prepositions

A preposition is just a string. @@ -308,7 +320,7 @@ A preposition is just a string. mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;

- +

Verbs

The worst case needs five forms. @@ -346,7 +358,7 @@ In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books. irregV : (dricka, drack, druckit : Str) -> V ;

- +

Verbs with a particle.

The particle, such as in passa p, is given as a string. @@ -355,7 +367,7 @@ The particle, such as in passa p partV : V -> Str -> V ;

- +

Deponent verbs.

Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. hoppas, some as @@ -366,7 +378,7 @@ reflexive e.g. reflV : V -> V ;

- +

Two-place verbs

Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. @@ -378,7 +390,7 @@ Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. dirV2 : V -> V2 ;

- +

Three-place verbs

Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which @@ -390,7 +402,7 @@ the first one or both can be absent. dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- ge _ _

- +

Other complement patterns

Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, @@ -424,7 +436,7 @@ as an adverb. Likewise AS, A2S, AV, A2V are just A. AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;

- +

Definitions of the paradigms

The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Phrase.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Phrase.html index 68a07e65d..7102c652d 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Phrase.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Phrase.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

Phrases and utterances

-Last update: 2006-01-25 20:10:39 CET
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:40 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Phrases and utterances

     abstract Phrase = Cat ** {
diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Precedence.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Precedence.html index b60db3700..378255b77 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Precedence.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Precedence.html @@ -13,7 +13,8 @@

-Last update: 2005-11-17 17:36:49 CET +Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:45 2006

Produced by @@ -21,6 +22,9 @@ gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+== +

+

operations for precedence-dependent strings. five levels: p4 (constants), p3 (applications), p2 (products), p1 (sums), p0 (arrows) diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Predef.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Predef.html index a8703dd28..3256d722b 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Predef.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Predef.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

Predefined functions for concrete syntax

-Last update: 2006-02-25 22:19:20 CET
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:45 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Predefined functions for concrete syntax

The definitions of these constants are hard-coded in GF, and defined in AppPredefined.hs. Applying diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/PredefAbs.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/PredefAbs.html index 8277d65d6..393042e4c 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/PredefAbs.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/PredefAbs.html @@ -13,13 +13,17 @@

-Last update: 2006-06-03 10:54:51 CEST +Author: +Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:45 2006

Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+

+== +

     abstract PredefAbs = {
       cat Int ; String ; Float ; 
diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Predication.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Predication.html
index e8ef2e02b..a1c9022b7 100644
--- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Predication.html
+++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Predication.html
@@ -6,20 +6,24 @@
 
 
 A Small Predication Library

 
-Last update: 2006-02-25 23:46:32 CET

+Author: 

+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:44 2006
 

 
 

 

 

+  
 
 

 

@@ -29,6 +33,8 @@ Produced by
 gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
 (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.
 

+
+
A Small Predication Library

 

 (c) Aarne Ranta 2003-2006 under Gnu GPL.
 

@@ -40,7 +46,7 @@ API of resource grammars.
     abstract Predication = Cat ** {

- +

The category of atomic sentences

We want to use sentences in positive and negative forms but do not care about @@ -52,7 +58,7 @@ tenses. NegCl : Cl -> S ; -- negative sentence: "x doesn't intersect y"

- +

Predication patterns.

       predV     : V  -> NP -> Cl ;         -- one-place verb:      "x converges"
@@ -70,14 +76,14 @@ tenses.
       predPrep  : Prep -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- preposition:         "x is outside y"

- +

Imperatives and infinitives.

       impV2     : V2 -> NP -> Phr ;        -- imperative:          "solve the equation E"
       infV2     : V2 -> NP -> Phr ;        -- infinitive:          "to solve the equation E"

- +

Individual-valued function applications

       appN2     : N2 -> NP -> NP ;         -- one-place function:  "the successor of x"
@@ -85,7 +91,7 @@ tenses.
       appColl   : N2 -> NP -> NP -> NP ;   -- collective function: "the sum of x and y"

- +

Families of types

These are expressed by relational nouns applied to arguments. @@ -96,7 +102,7 @@ These are expressed by relational nouns applied to arguments. famColl : N2 -> NP -> NP -> CN ; -- collective family: "path between x and y"

- +

Type constructor

This is similar to a family except that the argument is a type. diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Prelude.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Prelude.html index 9874ebde7..f354cecbf 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Prelude.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Prelude.html @@ -6,21 +6,25 @@

The GF Prelude

-Last update: 2006-02-25 22:31:06 CET
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:46 2006

+

@@ -30,6 +34,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

The GF Prelude

This file defines some prelude facilities usable in all grammars.

@@ -39,7 +45,7 @@ This file defines some prelude facilities usable in all grammars. oper

- +

Strings, records, and tables

       SS  : Type = {s : Str} ;
@@ -68,7 +74,7 @@ Discontinuous constituents.
       sd2 : (_,_ : Str) -> SD2 = \x,y -> {s1 = x ; s2 = y} ;

- +

Optional elements

Missing form. @@ -100,7 +106,7 @@ Parametric order between two strings. if_then_Str pr (x ++ y) (y ++ x) ;

- +

Infixes. prefixes, and postfixes

Fixes with precedences are defined in Precedence. @@ -112,7 +118,7 @@ Fixes with precedences are defined in Precedence. embedSS : Str -> Str -> SS -> SS = \f,g,x -> ss (f ++ x.s ++ g) ;

- +

Booleans

      param Bool = True | False ;
@@ -148,7 +154,7 @@ Interface to internal booleans
       last : Tok -> Tok = Predef.dp 1 ;

- +

High-level acces to Predef operations

       isNil : Tok -> Bool = \b -> pbool2bool (Predef.eqStr [] b) ;
@@ -157,7 +163,7 @@ Interface to internal booleans
         case Predef.eqStr t u of {Predef.PTrue => a ; Predef.PFalse => b} ;

- +

Lexer-related operations

Bind together two tokens in some lexers, either obligatorily or optionally @@ -185,7 +191,7 @@ These should be hidden, and never changed since they are hardcoded in (un)lexers CAPIT : Str = "&|" ;

- +

Miscellaneous

Identity function diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Question.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Question.html index ff5e3ece1..2949564f7 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Question.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Question.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

Questions and interrogative pronouns

-Last update: 2006-04-20 21:45:11 CEST
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:41 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Questions and interrogative pronouns

     abstract Question = Cat ** {
diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Relative.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Relative.html index 235b9e2e9..0b200ef37 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Relative.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Relative.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

Relative clauses and pronouns

-Last update: 2006-01-17 17:56:17 CET
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:41 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Relative clauses and pronouns

     abstract Relative = Cat ** {
     
diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Sentence.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Sentence.html
index d8a59fc45..1faac79e3 100644
--- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Sentence.html
+++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Sentence.html
@@ -6,19 +6,23 @@
 
 
 Sentences, clauses, imperatives, and sentential complements

 
-Last update: 2006-01-25 20:10:39 CET

+Author: 

+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:41 2006
 

 
 

 

 

+  
 
 

 

@@ -28,11 +32,13 @@ Produced by
 gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
 (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.
 

+
+
Sentences, clauses, imperatives, and sentential complements

 
     abstract Sentence = Cat ** {
 

 

-
+
 
Clauses

 

 The NP VP predication rule form a clause whose linearization
@@ -53,7 +59,7 @@ is only meaningful for some verb phrases.
         PredSCVP  : SC -> VP -> Cl ;         -- that you go makes me happy

- +

Clauses missing object noun phrases

This category is a variant of the 'slash category' S/NP of @@ -71,7 +77,7 @@ the style of CCG. SlashPrep : Cl -> Prep -> Slash ; -- (with whom) he walks

- +

Imperatives

An imperative is straightforwardly formed from a verb phrase. @@ -82,7 +88,7 @@ To fix these parameters, see Phrase. ImpVP : VP -> Imp ; -- go

- +

Embedded sentences

Sentences, questions, and infinitival phrases can be used as @@ -94,7 +100,7 @@ subjects and (adverbial) complements. EmbedVP : VP -> SC ; -- to go

- +

Sentences

These are the 2 x 4 x 4 = 16 forms generated by different diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Structural.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Structural.html index f7e5dca23..32650aece 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Structural.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Structural.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

GF Resource Grammar API for Structural Words

-Last update: 2006-05-23 23:38:09 CEST
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:41 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

GF Resource Grammar API for Structural Words

AR 21/11/2003 -- 30/11/2005

diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Symbol.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Symbol.html index 80ab280b2..7e071431c 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Symbol.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Symbol.html @@ -6,17 +6,21 @@

Symbolic expressions

-Last update: 2006-03-17 12:02:40 CET
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:44 2006

+

@@ -26,6 +30,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Symbolic expressions

Note. This module is not automatically included in the main grammar Lang. @@ -34,7 +40,7 @@ grammar Lang. abstract Symbol = Cat, PredefAbs ** {

- +

Noun phrases with symbols and numbers

     fun
@@ -46,13 +52,13 @@ grammar Lang.
       CNSymbNP : Det -> CN -> [Symb] -> NP ; -- (the) (2) numbers x and y

- +

Sentence consisting of a formula

       SymbS    : Symb -> S ;                 -- A

- +

Symbol lists

A symbol list has at least two elements. The last two are separated diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Tense.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Tense.html index 621e17a4a..511cb96e1 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Tense.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Tense.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

Tense, Polarity, and Anteriority

-Last update: 2006-02-26 18:06:25 CET
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:41 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Tense, Polarity, and Anteriority

This module defines the abstract parameters of tense, polarity, and anteriority, which are used in Tensed to generate different diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Text.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Text.html index 9ab111940..021306b6c 100644 --- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Text.html +++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Text.html @@ -6,12 +6,17 @@

Texts

-Last update: 2006-05-23 18:27:29 CEST
+Author:
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:41 2006

+ +

@@ -20,6 +25,8 @@ Produced by gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.

+ +

Texts

     abstract Text = Common ** {
     
diff --git a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Verb.html b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Verb.html
index 5d47cd62b..fcd773876 100644
--- a/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Verb.html
+++ b/lib/resource-1.0/doc/gfdoc/Verb.html
@@ -6,18 +6,22 @@
 
 
 The construction of verb phrases

 
-Last update: 2006-02-26 18:02:58 CET

+Author: 

+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:42:41 2006
 

 
 

 

 

+  
 
 

 

@@ -27,11 +31,13 @@ Produced by
 gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
 (c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.
 

+
+
The construction of verb phrases

 
     abstract Verb = Cat ** {
 

 

-
+
 
Complementization rules

 

 Verb phrases are constructed from verbs by providing their
@@ -51,7 +57,7 @@ complements. There is one rule for each verb category.
         ComplV2A : V2A -> NP -> AP -> VP ;  -- paint the house red

- +

Other ways of forming verb phrases

Verb phrases can also be constructed reflexively and from @@ -92,7 +98,7 @@ vs. next to (or before) the verb. Agents of passives are constructed as adverbs with the preposition Structural.8agent_Prep.

- +

Complements to copula

Adjectival phrases, noun phrases, and adverbs can be used. @@ -103,7 +109,7 @@ Adjectival phrases, noun phrases, and adverbs can be used. CompAdv : Adv -> Comp ; -- (be) here

- +

Coercions

Verbs can change subcategorization patterns in systematic ways,