From e4e64c13a69db6505df499a0c3445ada9b1b2d88 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: aarne Date: Fri, 27 Jun 2008 11:27:00 +0000 Subject: [PATCH] more rm in doc --- doc/gf2-highlights.html | 490 --------------------- doc/gf2.2-highlights.html | 173 -------- doc/gfcc.pdf | Bin 145566 -> 0 bytes doc/grammars-and-types.txt | 56 --- doc/intro-resource.txt | 511 ---------------------- doc/multimodal.html | 863 ------------------------------------- doc/multimodal.txt | 728 ------------------------------- 7 files changed, 2821 deletions(-) delete mode 100644 doc/gf2-highlights.html delete mode 100644 doc/gf2.2-highlights.html delete mode 100644 doc/gfcc.pdf delete mode 100644 doc/grammars-and-types.txt delete mode 100644 doc/intro-resource.txt delete mode 100644 doc/multimodal.html delete mode 100644 doc/multimodal.txt diff --git a/doc/gf2-highlights.html b/doc/gf2-highlights.html deleted file mode 100644 index 3d8a150a9..000000000 --- a/doc/gf2-highlights.html +++ /dev/null @@ -1,490 +0,0 @@ - - - - -
- -

Grammatical Framework Version 2

- -Highlights, versions 2.0, 2.1, and 2.2 (2.2 coming soon) - -

- -13/10/2003 - 25/11 - 2/4/2004 - 18/6 - 13/10 - 16/2/2005 - -

- -Aarne Ranta - -

- - -

Syntax of GF

- -An accurate language specification is now available. - - -

Summary of novelties in Versions 2.0 to 2.2

- -

Module system

- -
  • Separate modules for abstract, - concrete, and resource. -
  • Replaces the file-based include system -
  • Name space handling with qualified names -
  • Hierarchic structure (single inheritance **) + - cross-cutting reuse (open) -
  • Separate compilation, one module per file -
  • Reuse of abstract+concrete as resource
    - Version 2.2: separate reuse modules no longer needed -
  • Parametrized modules: - interface, instance, incomplete. -
  • New experimental module types: transfer, - union. -
  • Version 2.1: multiple inheritance in module extension. - -

    Canonical format GFC

    - -
  • The target of GF compiler; to reuse, just read in. -
  • Readable by Haskell/Java/C++/C applications. -
  • Version 2.1: Java interpreter available for GFC (by Björn Bringert). -
  • Version 2.2: new optimizations to reduce the size of GFC files - - -

    New features in expression language

    - -
  • Disjunctive patterns P | ... | Q. -
  • String patterns "foo". -
  • Binding token &+ to glue separate tokens at unlexing phase, - and unlexer to resolve this. -
  • New syntax alternatives for local definitions: let without - braces and where. -
  • Pattern variables can be used on lhs's of oper definitions. -
  • New Unicode transliterations (by Harad Hammarström). -
  • Version 2.1: Initial segments of integers - (Intsn) available as parameter types. - - -

    New shell commands and command functionalities

    - -
  • pi = print_info: information on an identifier in scope. -
  • h = help now in long or short form, - and on individual commands. -
  • gt = generate_trees: all trees of a given - category or instantiations of a given incomplete term, up to a - given depth. -
  • gr = generate_random can now be given - an incomplete term as an argument, to constrain generation. -
  • so = show_opers shows all ope - operations with a given value type. -
  • pm = print_multi prints the multilingual - grammar resident in the current state to a ready-compiles - .gfcm file. -
  • Version 2.2: several new command options -
  • Version 2.2: vg visializes the module dependency graph -
  • All commands have both long and short names (see help). Short - names are easier to type, whereas long names - make scripts more readable. -
  • Meaningless command options generate warnings. - - -

    New editor features

    - -
  • Active text field: click the middle button in the focus to send - in refinement through the parser. -
  • Clipboard: copy complex terms into the refine menu. -
  • Version 2.2: text corresponding to subtrees with constraints marked with red colour - - -

    Improved implementation

    - -
  • Haskell source code is organized into subdirectories. -
  • BNF Converter is used for defining the languages GF and GFC, which also - give reliable LaTeX documentation. -
  • Lexical rules sorted out by option -cflexer for efficient - parsing with large lexica. -
  • GHC optimizations and strictness flags are used for improving performance. -
  • Version 2.2: started haddock documentation - by using uniform module headers - - - -

    New parser (work in progress)

    - -
  • By Peter Ljunglöf, based on MCFG. -
  • Much more efficient for morphology and discontinuous constituents. -
  • Treatment of cyclic rules. -
  • Version 2.1: improved generation of speech recognition - grammars (by Björn Bringert). -
  • Version 2.1: output of Labelled BNF files readable by the - BNF Converter. - - - - - - -

    Abstract, concrete, and resource modules

    - -Judgement forms are sorted as follows: - -Example: -
    -  abstract Sums = {
-    cat 
-      Exp ;
-    fun 
-      One : Exp ;
-      plus : Exp -> Exp -> Exp ;
-  }
-
-  concrete EnglishSums of Sums = open ResEng in {
-    lincat 
-      Exp = {s : Str ; n : Number} ;
-    lin
-      One = expSg "one" ;
-      sum x y = expSg ("the" ++ "sum" ++ "of" ++ x.s ++ "and" ++ y.s) ;
-  }
-
-  resource ResEng = {
-    param 
-      Number = Sg | Pl ;
-    oper 
-      expSG : Str -> {s : Str ; n : Number} = \s -> {s = s ; n = Sg} ;
-  }
-
    - - - - - -

    Opening and extending modules

    - -A concrete or resource can open a -resource. This means that - -A module of any type can moreover extend a module of the same type. -This means that - -Examples of extension: -
    -  abstract Products = Sums ** {
-    fun times : Exp -> Exp -> Exp ;
-  }
-  -- names exported: Exp, plus, times
-
-  concrete English of Products = EnglishSums ** open ResEng in {
-    lin times x y = expSg ("the" ++ "product" ++ "of" ++ x.s ++ "and" ++ y.s) ;
-  }
-
    - -

    - -Opening, but not extension, can be qualified: -

    -  concrete NumberSystems of Systems = open (Bin = Binary), (Dec = Decimal) in {
-    lin 
-      BZero = Bin.Zero ;
-      DZero = Dec.Zero
-  }
-
    - -

    - -Version 2.1 introduces multiple inheritance: a module -can extend several modules at the same time, for instance, -

    -  abstract Dialogue = User, System ** { ...}
-
    -may be used to put together "User's moves" and "System's moves" into -one Dialogue System grammar. - - - - - -

    Compiling modules

    - -Separate compilation assumes there is one module per file. - -

    - -The module header is the beginning of the module code up to the -first left bracket ({). The header gives -

    - -

    - -filename = modulename . extension - -

    - -File name extensions: -

    -Only gf files should ever be written/edited manually! - -

    - -What the make facility does when compiling Foo.gf -

      -
    1. read the module header of Foo.gf, and recursively all headers from -the modules it depends on (i.e. extends or opens) -
    2. build a dependency graph of these modules, and do topological sorting -
    3. starting from the first module in topological order, -compare the modification times of each gf and gfc file: -
        -
      • if gf is later, compile the module and all modules depending on it -
      • if gfc is later, just read in the module -
      -
    -Inside the GF shell, also time stamps of modules read into memory are -taken into account. Thus a module need not be read from a file if the -module is in the memory and the file has not been modified. - -

    - -If the compilation of a grammar fails at some module, the state of the -GF shell contains all modules read up to that point. This makes it -faster to compile the faulty module again after fixing it. - -

    - -Use the command po = print_options to see what -modules are in the state. - -

    - -To force compilation: -

    - - - -

    Compiler optimizations

    - -Version 2.2 - -

    - -The sometimes exploding size of generated gfc and -gfr files has made it urgent to find optimizations -that reduce the size of the code. There are five -combinations optimizations that can be chosen, as the value of the -optimize flag: -

    -The share and parametrize optimizations are always -just good, whereas the values optimization may slow down the -use of the table. However, it is very good for grammars mostly consisting -of the inflection tables of lexical items: it can reduce the file size -by the factor of 4. - -

    - -An optimization can be selected individually for each -resource and concrete module by including -the judgement -

    -  flags optimize=(share|parametrize|values|all|none) ;
-
    -in the module body. These flags can be overridden by a flag given -in the i command, e.g. -
    -  i -src -optimize=none Foo.gf
-
    -Notice that the option -src is needed if there already are -generated files created with other optimization flags. - - - - - -

    Module search paths

    - -Modules can reside in different directories. Use the path -flag to extend the directory search path. For instance, -
    -  -path=.:../resource/russian:../prelude
-
    -enables files to be found in three different directories. -By default, only the current directory is included. -If a path flag is given, the current directory -. must be explicitly included if it is wanted. - -

    - -The path flag can be set in any of the following -places: -

    -A flag set on a command line overrides ones set in files. - - - - -

    How to use GF 1.* files

    - -Backward compatibility with respect to old GF grammars has been -a central goal. All GF grammars, from version 0.9, should work in -the old way in GF2. The main exceptions are some features that -are rarely used. - - -

    - -Very old GF grammars (from versions before 0.9), with the completely -different notation, do not work. They should be first converted to -GF1 by using GF version 1.2. - -

    - -The import command i can be given the option -old. E.g. -

    -  i -old tut1.Eng.g2
-
    -But this is no more necessary: GF2 detects automatically if a grammar -is in the GF1 format. - -

    - -Importing a set of GF2 files generates, internally, three modules: -

    -  abstract tut1 = ...
-  resource ResEng = ...
-  concrete Eng of tut1 = open ResEng in ...
-
    -(The names are different if the file name has fewer parts.) - - -

    - -The option -o causes GF2 to write these modules into files. - -

    - -The flags -abs, -cnc, and -res can be used -to give custom names to the modules. In particular, it is good to use -the -abs flag to guarantee that the abstract syntax module -has the same name for all grammars in a multilingual environmens: -

    -  i -old -abs=Numerals hungarian.gf
-  i -old -abs=Numerals tamil.gf
-  i -old -abs=Numerals sanskrit.gf
-
    - -

    - -The same flags as in the import command can be used when invoking -GF2 from the system shell. Many grammars can be imported on the same command -line, e.g. -

    -  % gf2 -old -abs=Tutorial tut1.Eng.gf tut1.Fin.gf tut1.Fra.gf
-
    - -

    - -To write a GF2 grammar back to GF1 (as one big file), use the command -

    -  > pg -old
-
    - - -

    - - -GF2 has more reserved words than GF 1.2. When old files are read, a preprocessor -replaces every identifier that has the shape of a new reserved word -with a variant where the last letter is replaced by Z, e.g. -instance is replaced by instancZ. This method is of course -unsafe and should be replaced by something better. - - - - -

    Missing features of GF 1.2 (13/10/2004)

    - -Generally, GF1 grammars can be automatically translated to GF2, although the -result is not as good -as manual, since indentation and comments are destroyed. -The results can be -saved in GF2 files, but this is not necessary. -Some rarely used GF1 features are no longer supported (see next section). -It is also possible to write a GF2 grammar back to GF1, with the -command pg -printer=old. - - -

    - -Resource libraries -and some example grammars have been -converted. Most old example grammars work without any changes. -However, there is a new resource API with -many new constructions, and which is recommended. - -

    - -Soundness checking of module depencencies and completeness is not -complete. This means that some errors may show up too late. - -

    - -Latex and XML printing of grammars do not work yet. - - - - diff --git a/doc/gf2.2-highlights.html b/doc/gf2.2-highlights.html deleted file mode 100644 index 58ccd5256..000000000 --- a/doc/gf2.2-highlights.html +++ /dev/null @@ -1,173 +0,0 @@ - - - - -

    - -

    Grammatical Framework Version 2.2

    - -Highlights of GF version 2.2. - -

    - -9/5/2005 - -

    - -Aarne Ranta - -

    - - -

    Summary of novelties in Version 2.2 in comparison to 2.1

    - -
  • New optimizations to reduce the size of GFC files -
  • Improved parsing algorithms -
  • Lots of bug fixes -
  • Separate reuse modules no longer needed -
  • Several new command options -
  • New documentation: - -
  • New resource libraries -
  • New example grammars -
  • Visualization of module dependency graph -
  • In the editor GUI, text corresponding to subtrees with constraints marked with red colour -
  • Hierarchic modules used in the source code -
  • haddock documentation available for source code -
  • Optimizations to reduce GF's memory footprint when using large grammars. -
  • The pm command can now convert identifiers in the grammar to UTF-8. - - -

    Compiler optimizations

    - -The sometimes exploding size of generated gfc and -gfr files has made it urgent to find optimizations -that reduce the size of the code. There are five -combinations optimizations that can be chosen, as the value of the -optimize flag: - -The share and parametrize optimizations are always -just good, whereas the values optimization may slow down the -use of the table. However, it is very good for grammars mostly consisting -of the inflection tables of lexical items: it can reduce the file size -by the factor of 4. - -

    - -An optimization can be selected individually for each -resource and concrete module by including -the judgement -

    -  flags optimize=(share|parametrize|values|all|none) ;
-
    -in the module body. These flags can be overridden by a flag given -in the i command, e.g. -
    -  i -src -optimize=none Foo.gf
-
    -Notice that the option -src is needed if there already are -generated files created with other optimization flags. - -

    - -Important notice: If you use the - -Embedded GF Interpreter, -or the improved parsing algorithms described below, -only the values none, -share and values can be used; the stronger optimizations are not -supported yet. -Also note that currently, GF aborts and reports an error if the stronger optimizations are used -when creating the grammar for the Embedded GF Interpreter, or when trying to parse. - - -

    Improved parsing algorithms

    - -We have implemented some of the suggested parsing algorithms described in -Peter Ljunglöf's PhD thesis. -So now there are the following options for parsing: - -The option -parser=X selects the parsing strategy. The default parser has the strategies -chart, bottomup, topdown, old, with the first one being the default. -The -cfg and -mcfg parsers only recognize the bottomup and topdown strategies. - -

    - -Note that the -cfg and -mcfg parsers can take a very long time on their first call, since -they have to convert the GF grammar. This will only happen once in a GF run, provided the GF files are not changed. - -

    - -Tips for choosing the best parser for your grammar. Try with the default parser; if it is too slow, try the other two. -Remember that the first time you parse they will be very slow, since they have to build parsing information. -the -cfg parser is best on grammars with many parameters and inflection tables, and -The -mcfg parser is even better when the grammar also has discontinuous constituents. - -

    - -Here is a small example from the resource library: -

    -> i -src -optimize=share lib/resource/english/LangEng.gf
-> p -cat=S ""
-> p -cat=S -cfg ""
-> p -cat=S -mcfg ""
-{Comment: Just some dummy parsing calls to calculate the parsing information}
-
-> p -cat=S -rawtrees=200000 "you will be running"
-{Comment: Nr of unfiltered trees: 169296 -- 99,996% av the trees are ill-typed}
-
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP thou_NP (IPredV AAnter run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP thou_NP (IPredV ASimul run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP ye_NP (IPredV AAnter run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP ye_NP (IPredV ASimul run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP you_NP (IPredV AAnter run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP you_NP (IPredV ASimul run_V))
-
-17730 msec
-
-> p -cat=S -cfg "you will be running"
-{Comment: Nr of unfiltered trees: 246 -- 97,5% of the trees are ill-typed}
-
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP thou_NP (IPredV AAnter run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP thou_NP (IPredV ASimul run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP ye_NP (IPredV AAnter run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP ye_NP (IPredV ASimul run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP you_NP (IPredV AAnter run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP you_NP (IPredV ASimul run_V))
-
-1580 msec
-
-> p -cat=S -mcfg "you will be running"
-{Comment: Nr of unfiltered trees: 6 -- all trees are type-corrent}
-
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP thou_NP (IPredV AAnter run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP thou_NP (IPredV ASimul run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP ye_NP (IPredV AAnter run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP ye_NP (IPredV ASimul run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP you_NP (IPredV AAnter run_V))
-UseCl (PosTP TFuture ASimul) (SPredProgVP you_NP (IPredV ASimul run_V))
-
-470 msec
-
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- -==Cross-linguistic types== - -generalizations over type systems, parametrized modules - - -==Grammatical concepts formalized== - -POS, category - -inherent and parametric features - -agreement - -rection - -endocentric and exocentric concepts - -(see Lyons and Jespersen for more) - -a core syntax (latin.gf) - diff --git a/doc/intro-resource.txt b/doc/intro-resource.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c4c292fca..000000000 --- a/doc/intro-resource.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,511 +0,0 @@ - - -==Coverage== - -The GF Resource Grammar Library contains grammar rules for -10 languages (in addition, 2 languages are available as incomplete -implementations, and a few more are under construction). Its purpose -is to make these rules available for application programmers, -who can thereby concentrate on the semantic and stylistic -aspects of their grammars, without having to think about -grammaticality. The targeted level of application grammarians -is that of a skilled programmer with -a practical knowledge of the target languages, but without -theoretical knowledge about their grammars. -Such a combination of -skills is typical of programmers who, for instance, want to localize -software to new languages. - -The current resource languages are -- ``Ara``bic (incomplete) -- ``Cat``alan (incomplete) -- ``Dan``ish -- ``Eng``lish -- ``Fin``nish -- ``Fre``nch -- ``Ger``man -- ``Ita``lian -- ``Nor``wegian -- ``Rus``sian -- ``Spa``nish -- ``Swe``dish - - -The first three letters (``Eng`` etc) are used in grammar module names. -The incomplete Arabic and Catalan implementations are -enough to be used in many applications; they both contain, amoung other -things, complete inflectional morphology. - - - -==A first example== - -To give an example application, consider a system for steering -music playing devices by voice commands. In the application, -we may have a semantical category ``Kind``, examples -of ``Kind``s being ``Song`` and ``Artist``. In German, for instance, ``Song`` -is linearized into the noun "Lied", but knowing this is not -enough to make the application work, because the noun must be -produced in both singular and plural, and in four different -cases. By using the resource grammar library, it is enough to -write -``` - lin Song = mkN "Lied" "Lieder" neuter -``` -and the eight forms are correctly generated. The resource grammar -library contains a complete set of inflectional paradigms (such as -``mkN`` here), enabling the definition of any lexical items. - -The resource grammar library is not only about inflectional paradigms - it -also has syntax rules. The music player application -might also want to modify songs with properties, such as "American", -"old", "good". The German grammar for adjectival modifications is -particularly complex, because adjectives have to agree in gender, -number, and case, and also depend on what determiner is used -("ein amerikanisches Lied" vs. "das amerikanische Lied"). All this -variation is taken care of by the resource grammar function -``` - mkCN : AP -> CN -> CN -``` -(see the table in the end of this document for the list of all resource grammar -functions). The resource grammar implementation of the rule adding properties -to kinds is -``` - lin PropKind kind prop = mkCN prop kind -``` -given that -``` - lincat Prop = AP - lincat Kind = CN -``` -The resource library API is devided into language-specific -and language-independent parts. To put it roughly, -- the lexicon API is language-specific -- the syntax API is language-independent - - -Thus, to render the above example in French instead of German, we need to -pick a different linearization of ``Song``, -``` - lin Song = mkN "chanson" feminine -``` -But to linearize ``PropKind``, we can use the very same rule as in German. -The resource function ``mkCN`` has different implementations in the two -languages (e.g. a different word order in French), -but the application programmer need not care about the difference. - - - -==Note on APIs== - -From version 1.1 onwards, the resource library is available via two -APIs: -- original ``fun`` and ``oper`` definitions -- overloaded ``oper`` definitions - - -Introducing overloading in GF version 2.7 has been a success in improving -the accessibility of libraries. It has also created a layer of abstraction -between the writers and users of libraries, and thereby makes the library -easier to modify. We shall therefore use the overloaded API -in this document. The original function names are mainly interesting -for those who want to write or modify libraries. - - - -==A complete example== - -To summarize the example, and also give a template for a programmer to work on, -here is the complete implementation of a small system with songs and properties. -The abstract syntax defines a "domain ontology": -``` - abstract Music = { - - cat - Kind, - Property ; - fun - PropKind : Kind -> Property -> Kind ; - Song : Kind ; - American : Property ; - } -``` -The concrete syntax is defined by a functor (parametrized module), -independently of language, by opening -two interfaces: the resource ``Syntax`` and an application lexicon. -``` - incomplete concrete MusicI of Music = - open Syntax, MusicLex in { - lincat - Kind = CN ; - Property = AP ; - lin - PropKind k p = mkCN p k ; - Song = mkCN song_N ; - American = mkAP american_A ; - } -``` -The application lexicon ``MusicLex`` is an interface -opening the resource category system ``Cat``. -``` - interface MusicLex = Cat ** { - oper - song_N : N ; - american_A : A ; - } -``` -It could also be an abstract syntax that extends ``Cat``, but -this would limit the kind of constructions that are possible in -the interface - -Each language has its own concrete syntax, which opens the -inflectional paradigms module for that language: -``` - interface MusicLexGer of MusicLex = - CatGer ** open ParadigmsGer in { - oper - song_N = mkN "Lied" "Lieder" neuter ; - american_A = mkA "amerikanisch" ; - } - - interface MusicLexFre of MusicLex = - CatFre ** open ParadigmsFre in { - oper - song_N = mkN "chanson" feminine ; - american_A = mkA "américain" ; - } -``` -The top-level ``Music`` grammars are obtained by -instantiating the two interfaces of ``MusicI``: -``` - concrete MusicGer of Music = MusicI with - (Syntax = SyntaxGer), - (MusicLex = MusicLexGer) ; - - concrete MusicFre of Music = MusicI with - (Syntax = SyntaxFre), - (MusicLex = MusicLexFre) ; -``` -Both of these files can use the same ``path``, defined as -``` - --# -path=.:present:prelude -``` -The ``present`` category contains the compiled resources, restricted to -present tense; ``alltenses`` has the full resources. - -To localize the music player system to a new language, -all that is needed is two modules, -one implementing ``MusicLex`` and the other -instantiating ``Music``. The latter is -completely trivial, whereas the former one involves the choice of correct -vocabulary and inflectional paradigms. For instance, Finnish is added as follows: -``` - instance MusicLexFin of MusicLex = - CatFin ** open ParadigmsFin in { - oper - song_N = mkN "kappale" ; - american_A = mkA "amerikkalainen" ; - } - - concrete MusicFin of Music = MusicI with - (Syntax = SyntaxFin), - (MusicLex = MusicLexFin) ; -``` -More work is of course needed if the language-independent linearizations in -MusicI are not satisfactory for some language. The resource grammar guarantees -that the linearizations are possible in all languages, in the sense of grammatical, -but they might of course be inadequate for stylistic reasons. Assume, -for the sake of argument, that adjectival modification does not sound good in -English, but that a relative clause would be preferrable. One can then use -restricted inheritance of the functor: -``` - concrete MusicEng of Music = - MusicI - [PropKind] - with - (Syntax = SyntaxEng), - (MusicLex = MusicLexEng) ** - open SyntaxEng in { - lin - PropKind k p = mkCN k (mkRS (mkRCl which_RP (mkVP p))) ; - } -``` -The lexicon is as expected: -``` - instance MusicLexEng of MusicLex = - CatEng ** open ParadigmsEng in { - oper - song_N = mkN "song" ; - american_A = mkA "American" ; - } -``` - - -==Lock fields== - -//This section is only relevant as a guide to error messages that have to do with lock fields, and can be skipped otherwise.// - -FIXME: this section may become obsolete. - -When the categories of the resource grammar are used -in applications, a **lock field** is added to their linearization types. -The lock field for a category ``C`` is a record field -``` - lock_C : {} -``` -with the only possible value -``` - lock_C = <> -``` -The lock field carries no information, but its presence -makes the linearization type of ``C`` -unique, so that categories -with the same implementation are not confused with each other. -(This is inspired by the ``newtype`` discipline in Haskell.) - -For example, the lincats of adverbs and conjunctions are the same -in ``CatEng`` (and therefore in ``GrammarEng``, which inherits it): -``` - lincat Adv = {s : Str} ; - lincat Conj = {s : Str} ; -``` -But when these category symbols are used to denote their linearization -types in an application, these definitions are translated to -``` - oper Adv : Type = {s : Str ; lock_Adv : {}} ; - oper Conj : Type = {s : Str} ; lock_Conj : {}} ; -``` -In this way, the user of a resource grammar cannot confuse adverbs with -conjunctions. In other words, the lock fields force the type checker -to function as grammaticality checker. - -When the resource grammar is ``open``ed in an application grammar, -and only functions from the resource are used in type-correct way, the -lock fields are never seen (except possibly in type error messages). -If an application grammarian has to write lock fields herself, -it is a sign that the guarantees given by the resource grammar -no longer hold. But since the resource may be incomplete, the -application grammarian may occasionally have to provide the dummy -values of lock fields (always ``<>``, the empty record). -Here is an example: -``` - mkUtt : Str -> Utt ; - mkUtt s = {s = s ; lock_Utt = <>} ; -``` -Currently, missing lock field produce warnings rather than errors, -but this behaviour of GF may change in future. - - -==Parsing with resource grammars?== - -The intended use of the resource grammar is as a library for writing -application grammars. It is not designed for parsing e.g. newspaper text. There -are several reasons why this is not practical: -- Efficiency: the resource grammar uses complex data structures, in -particular, discontinuous constituents, which make parsing slow and the -parser size huge. -- Completeness: the resource grammar does not necessarily cover all rules -of the language - only enough many to be able to express everything -in one way or another. -- Lexicon: the resource grammar has a very small lexicon, only meant for test -purposes. -- Semantics: the resource grammar has very little semantic control, and may -accept strange input or deliver strange interpretations. -- Ambiguity: parsing in the resource grammar may return lots of results many -of which are implausible. - - -All of these problems should be solved in application grammars. -The task of resource grammars is just to take care of low-level linguistic -details such as inflection, agreement, and word order. - -It is for the same reasons that resource grammars are not adequate for translation. -That the syntax API is implemented for different languages of course makes -it possible to translate via it - but there is no guarantee of translation -equivalence. Of course, the use of functor implementations such as ``MusicI`` -above only extends to those cases where the syntax API does give translation -equivalence - but this must be seen as a limiting case, and bigger applications -will often use only restricted inheritance of ``MusicI``. - - - -=To find rules in the resource grammar library= - -==Inflection paradigms== - -Inflection paradigms are defined separately for each language //L// -in the module ``Paradigms``//L//. To test them, the command -``cc`` (= ``compute_concrete``) -can be used: -``` - > i -retain german/ParadigmsGer.gf - - > cc mkN "Schlange" - { - s : Number => Case => Str = table Number { - Sg => table Case { - Nom => "Schlange" ; - Acc => "Schlange" ; - Dat => "Schlange" ; - Gen => "Schlange" - } ; - Pl => table Case { - Nom => "Schlangen" ; - Acc => "Schlangen" ; - Dat => "Schlangen" ; - Gen => "Schlangen" - } - } ; - g : Gender = Fem - } -``` -For the sake of convenience, every language implements these five paradigms: -``` - oper - mkN : Str -> N ; -- regular nouns - mkA : Str -> A : -- regular adjectives - mkV : Str -> V ; -- regular verbs - mkPN : Str -> PN ; -- regular proper names - mkV2 : V -> V2 ; -- direct transitive verbs -``` -It is often possible to initialize a lexicon by just using these functions, -and later revise it by using the more involved paradigms. For instance, in -German we cannot use ``mkN "Lied"`` for ``Song``, because the result would be a -Masculine noun with the plural form ``"Liede"``. -The individual ``Paradigms`` modules -tell what cases are covered by the regular heuristics. - -As a limiting case, one could even initialize the lexicon for a new language -by copying the English (or some other already existing) lexicon. This would -produce language with correct grammar but with content words directly borrowed from -English - maybe not so strange in certain technical domains. - - - -==Syntax rules== - -Syntax rules should be looked for in the module ``Constructors``. -Below this top-level module exposing overloaded constructors, -there are around 10 abstract modules, each defining constructors for -a group of one or more related categories. For instance, the module -``Noun`` defines how to construct common nouns, noun phrases, and determiners. -But these special modules are seldom or never needed by the users of the library. - -TODO: when are they needed? - -Browsing the libraries is helped by the gfdoc-generated HTML pages, -whose LaTeX versions are included in the present document. - - -==Special-purpose APIs== - -To give an analogy with the well-known type setting software, GF can be compared -with TeX and the resource grammar library with LaTeX. -Just like TeX frees the author -from thinking about low-level problems of page layout, so GF frees the grammarian -from writing parsing and generation algorithms. But quite a lot of knowledge of -//how// to write grammars is still needed, and the resource grammar library helps -GF grammarians in a way similar to how the LaTeX macro package helps TeX authors. - -But even LaTeX is often too detailed and low-level, and users are encouraged to -develop their own macro packages. The same applies to GF resource grammars: -the application grammarian might not need all the choices that the resource -provides, but would prefer less writing and higher-level programming. -To this end, application grammarians may want to write their own views on the -resource grammar. - - -==Browsing by the parser== - -A method alternative to browsing library documentation is -to use the parser. -Even though parsing is not an intended end-user application -of resource grammars, it is a useful technique for application grammarians -to browse the library. To find out which resource function implements -a particular structure, one can just parse a string that exemplifies this -structure. For instance, to find out how sentences are built using -transitive verbs, write -``` - > i english/LangEng.gf - - > p -cat=Cl "she loves him" - PredVP (UsePron she_Pron) (ComplV2 love_V2 (UsePron he_Pron)) -``` -The parser returns original constructors, not overloaded ones. Overloaded -constructors can be returned, so far with experimental heuristics, by using -the grammar ``api/toplevel/OverLangEng.gf`` and a special flag: -``` - > i api/toplevel/OverLangEng.gf - - > p -cat=Cl -overload "she loves him" - mkCl (mkNP she_Pron) love_V2 (mkNP he_Pron) -``` -Parsing with the English resource grammar has an acceptable speed, but -with most languages it takes just too much resources even to build the -parser. However, examples parsed in one language can always be linearized into -other languages: -``` - > i italian/LangIta.gf - - > l PredVP (UsePron she_Pron) (ComplV2 love_V2 (UsePron he_Pron)) - lo ama -``` -Therefore, one can use the English parser to write an Italian grammar, and also -to write a language-independent (incomplete) grammar. One can also parse strings -that are bizarre in English but the intended way of expression in another language. -For instance, the phrase for "I am hungry" in Italian is literally "I have hunger". -This can be built by parsing "I have beer" in ``OverLangEng`` and then writing -``` - lin IamHungry = - let beer_N = mkN "fame" feminine - in - mkCl (mkNP i_Pron) have_V2 (mkNP massQuant beer_N) -``` -which uses ``ParadigmsIta.mkN``. - - - -==Example-based grammar writing== - -The technique of parsing with the resource grammar can be used in GF source files, -endowed with the suffix ``.gfe`` ("GF examples"). The suffix tells GF to preprocess -the file by replacing all expressions of the form -``` - in Module.Cat "example string" -``` -by the syntax trees obtained by parsing "example string" in ``Cat`` in ``Module``. -For instance, -``` - lin IamHungry = - let beer_N = mkN "fame" feminine - in - (in LangEng.Cl "I have beer") ; -``` -will result in the rule displayed in the previous section. The normal binding rules -of functional programming (and GF) guarantee that local bindings of identifiers -take precedence over constants of the same forms. Thus it is also possible to -linearize functions taking arguments in this way: -``` - lin - PropKind car_N old_A = in LangEng.CN "old car" ; -``` -However, the technique of example-based grammar writing has some limitations: -- Ambiguity. If a string has several parses, the first one is returned, and -it may not be the intended one. The other parses are shown in a comment, from -where they must/can be picked manually. -- Lexicality. The arguments of a function must be atomic identifiers, and are thus -not available for categories that have no lexical items. -For instance, the ``PropKind`` rule above gives the result -``` - lin - PropKind car_N old_A = AdjCN (UseN car_N) (PositA old_A) ; -``` -However, it is possible to write a special lexicon that gives atomic rules for -all those categories that can be used as arguments, for instance, -``` - fun - cat_CN : CN ; - old_AP : AP ; -``` -and then use this lexicon instead of the standard one included in ``Lang``. - - diff --git a/doc/multimodal.html b/doc/multimodal.html deleted file mode 100644 index 9f2b43902..000000000 --- a/doc/multimodal.html +++ /dev/null @@ -1,863 +0,0 @@ - - - - -Demonstrative Expressions and Multimodal Grammars - -

    Demonstrative Expressions and Multimodal Grammars

    - -Author: Aarne Ranta <aarne (at) cs.chalmers.se>
    -Last update: Mon Jan 9 20:29:45 2006 -
    - -

    -
    -

    -     - -

    -
    -

    - -

    Abstract

    -

    -This document shows a method to write grammars -in which spoken utterances are accompanied by -pointing gestures. A computer application of such -grammars are multimodal dialogue systems, in -which the pointing gestures are performed by -mouse clicks and movements. -

    -

    -After an introduction to the notions of -demonstratives and integrated multimodality, -we will show by a concrete example -how multimodal grammars can be written in GF -and how they can be used in dialogue systems. -The explanation is given in three stages: -

    -
      -
    1. How to write a multimodal grammar by hand. -
    2. How to add multimodality to a unimodal grammar. -
    3. How to use a multimodal resource grammar. -
    - - -

    Multimodal grammars

    -

    -Demonstrative expressions are an old idea. Such -expressions get their meaning from the context. -

    -
    - This train is faster than that airplane. -
    -

    -
    - I want to go from this place to this place. -
    -

    -

    -In particular, as in these examples, the meaning -can be obtained from accompanying pointing gestures. -

    -

    -Thus the meaning-bearing unit is neither the words nor the -gestures alone, but their combination. Demonstratives -thus provide an example of integrated multimodality, -as opposed to parallel multimodality. In parallel -multimodality, speech and other modes of communication -are just alternative ways to convey the same information. -

    - -

    Representing demonstratives in semantics and grammar

    -

    -When formalizing the semantics of demonstratives, we can combine syntax with coordinates: -

    -
    - I want to go from this place to this place -
    -

    -

    -is interpreted as something like -

    -
    -    want(I, go, this(place,(123,45)), this(place,(98,10))) 
-
    -

    -Now, the same semantic value can be given in many ways, by performing -the clicks at different points of time in relation to the speech: -

    -
    - I want to go from this place CLICK(123,45) to this place CLICK(98,10) -
    -

    -
    - I want to go from this place to this place CLICK(123,45) CLICK(98,10) -
    -

    -
    - CLICK(123,45) CLICK(98,10) I want to go from this place to this place -
    -

    -

    -How do we build the value compositionally in parsing? -Traditional parsing is sequential: its input is a string of tokens. -It works for demonstratives only if the pointing is adjacent to -the spoken expression. In the actual input, the demonstrative word -can be separated from the accompanying click by other words. The two -can also be simultaneous. -

    - -

    Asynchronous syntax in GF

    -

    -What we need is a notion of asynchronous parsing, as opposed to -sequential parsing (where demonstrative words and clicks must be -adjacent). -

    -

    -We can implement asynchronous parsin in GF by exploiting the generality -of linearization types. A linearization type is the type of -the concrete syntax objects assigned to semantic values. -What a GF grammar defines is a relation -

    -
    -        abstract syntax trees  <--->  concrete syntax objects
-
    -

    -When modelling context-free grammar in GF, -the concrete syntax objects are just strings. -But they can be more structured objects as well - in general, they are -records of different kinds of objects. For example, -a demonstrative expression can be linearized into a record of two strings. -

    -
    -                                       {s = "this place" ;
-    this place (coord 123 45)  <--->    p = "(123,45)"
-                                       }
-
    -

    -The record -

    -
    -    {s = "I want to go from this place to this place" ;
-     p = "(123,45) (98,10"
-    }
-
    -

    -represents any combination of the sentence and the clicks, as long -as the clicks appear in this order. -

    - -

    Example multimodal grammar: abstract syntax

    -

    -A simple example of a multimodal GF grammar is the one called -the Tram Demo grammar. It was written by Björn Bringert within -the TALK project as a part of a dialogue system that -deals with queries about tram timetables. The system interprets -a speech input in combination with mouse clicks on a digital map. -

    -

    -The abstract syntax of (a minimal fragment of) the Tram Demo -grammar is -

    -
    -  cat
-    Input, Dep, Dest, Click ;
-  fun
-    GoFromTo    : Dep  -> Dest -> Input ; -- "I want to go from x to y"
-    DepHere     : Click -> Dep ;          -- "from here" with click
-    DestHere    : Click -> Dest ;         -- "to here" with click
-  
-    CCoord      : Int -> Int -> Click ;   -- click coordinates
-
    -

    -An English concrete syntax of the grammar is -

    -
    -  lincat
-    Input, Dep, Dest = {s : Str ; p : Str} ;
-    Click            = {p : Str} ;
-  
-  lin
-    GoFromTo x y  = {s = ["I want to go"] ++ x.s ++ y.s ; p = x.p ++ y.p} ;
-    DepHere c     = {s = ["from here"]                  ; p = c.p} ;
-    DestHere c    = {s = ["to here"]                    ; p = c.p} ;
-  
-    CCoord x y    = {p = "(" ++ x.s ++ "," ++ y.s ++ ")"} ;
-
    -

    -When the grammar is used in the actual system, standard parsing methods -are used for interpreting the integrated speech and click input. -Parsing appears on two levels: the speech input parsing -performed by the Nuance speech recognition program (without the clicks), -and the semantics-yielding parser sending input to the dialogue manager. -The latter parser just attaches the clicks to the speech input. The order -of the clicks is preserved, and the parser can hence associate each of -the clicks with proper demonstratives. Here is the grammar used in the -two parsing phases. -

    -
    -  cat
-    Query,    -- whole content
-    Speech ;  -- speech only
-  fun
-    QueryInput  : Input -> Query ;   -- the whole content shown
-    SpeechInput : Input -> Speech ;  -- only the speech shown
-  
-  lincat
-    Query, Speech = {s : Str} ;
-  lin
-    QueryInput i  = {s = i.s ++ ";" ++ i.p} ;
-    SpeechInput i = {s = i.s} ;
-
    -

    - -

    Digression: discontinuous constituents

    -

    -The GF representation of integrated multimodality is -similar to the representation of discontinous constituents. -For instance, assume has arrived is a verb phrase in English, -which can be used both in declarative sentences and questions, -

    -
    - she has arrived -
    -

    -
    - has she arrived -
    -

    -

    -In the question, the two words are separated from each other. If -has arrived is a constituent of the question, it is thus discontinuous. -To represent such constituents in GF, records can be used: -we split verb phrases (VP) into a finite and infinitive part. -

    -
    -    lincat VP = {fin, inf : Str} ;
-  
-    lin Indic np vp = {s = np.s ++ vp.fin ++ vp.inf} ;
-    lin Quest np vp = {s = vp.fin ++ np.s ++ vp.inf} ;
-
    -

    - -

    From grammars to dialogue systems

    -

    -The general recipe for using GF when building dialogue systems -is to write a grammar with the following components: -

    -
      -
    • The abstract syntax defines the semantics (the "ontology") - of the domain of the system. -
    • The concrete syntaxes define alternative modes of input and output. -
    - -

    -The engineering advantages of this approach have to do partly with -the declarativity of the description, partly with the tools provided -by GF to derive different components of the system: -

    -
      -
    • The type checker guarantees that all the input and output - modes match with the ontology. -
    • The grammar compiler generates parsers for each input grammar - and generators for each output grammar. -
    • Translators between GF's abstract syntax and other ontology - description languages enable communication with different - kinds of dialogue managers and cover e.g. Prolog terms and XML objects. -
    • Translators from GF's concrete syntax to speech recognition formats - make it possible to generate e.g. Nuance grammars and ATK language - models. -
    - -

    -An example of this process is Björn Bringert's TramDemo. -More recently, grammars have been integrated to the GoDiS dialogue -manager by Prolog representations of abstract syntax. -

    - -

    Adding multimodality to a unimodal grammar

    -

    -This section gives a recipe for making any unimodal grammar -multimodal, by adding pointing gestures to chosen expressions. The recipe -guarantees that the resulting grammar remains semantically well-formed, -i.e. type correct. -

    - -

    The multimodal conversion

    -

    -The multimodal conversion of a grammar consists of seven -steps, of which the first is always the same, the second -involves a decision, and the rest are derivative: -

    -
      -
    1. Add the category `Point` with a standard linearization type. -
      -    cat Point ;
-    lincat Point = {point : Str} ;
-
      -
    2. (Decision) Decide which constructors are demonstrative, i.e. take - a pointing gesture as an argument. Add a Point` as their last argument. - The new type signatures for such constructors d have the form -
      -     fun d : ... -> Point -> D 
-
      -
    3. (Derivative) Add a point field to the linearization type L of any - demonstrative category D, i.e. a category that has at least one demonstrative - constructor: -
      -      lincat D = L ** {point : Str} ;
-
      -
    4. (Derivative) If some other category C has a constructor d that takes - demonstratives as arguments, make it demonstrative by adding a point field - to its linearization type. -
    5. (Derivative) Store the point field in the linearization t of any - constructor d that has been made demonstrative: -
      -      lin d x1 ... xn p = t x1 ... xn ** {point = p.point} ;
-
      -
    6. (Derivative) For each constructor f that takes demonstratives D_1,...,D_n - as arguments, collect the point fields of the arguments in the point - field of the value: -
      -    lin f x_1 ... x_m = 
-      t x_1 ... x_m ** {point = x_d1.point ++ ... ++ x_dn.point} ;
-
      - Make sure that the pointings x_d1.point ... x_dn.point are concatenated - in the same order as the arguments appear in the linearization t, - which is not necessarily the same as the abstract argument order. -
    7. (Derivative) To preserve type correctness, add an empty - point field to the linearization t of any - constructor c of a demonstrative category: -
      -      lin c x1 ... xn = t x1 ... xn ** {point = []} ;
-
      -
    - - -

    An example of the conversion

    -

    -Start with a Tram Demo grammar with no demonstratives, but just -tram stop names and the indexical here (interpreted as e.g. the user's -standing place). -

    -
    -  cat
-    Input, Dep, Dest, Name ;
-  fun
-    GoFromTo    : Dep  -> Dest -> Input ;
-    DepHere     : Dep ;                  
-    DestHere    : Dest ;                 
-    DepName     : Name -> Dep ;          
-    DestName    : Name -> Dest ;         
-  
-    Almedal     : Name ;                 
-
    -

    -A unimodal English concrete syntax of the grammar is -

    -
    -  lincat
-    Input, Dep, Dest, Name = {s : Str} ;
-  
-  lin
-    GoFromTo x y  = {s = ["I want to go"] ++ x.s ++ y.s} ;
-    DepHere       = {s = ["from here"]} ;
-    DestHere      = {s = ["to here"]} ;
-    DepName n     = {s = ["from"] ++ n.s} ;
-    DestName n    = {s = ["to"] ++ n.s} ;
-  
-    Almedal       = {s = "Almedal"} ;
-
    -

    -Let us follow the steps of the recipe. -

    -
      -
    1. We add the category Point and its linearization type. -
    2. We decide that DepHere and DestHere involve a pointing gesture. -
    3. We add point to the linearization types of Dep and Dest. -
    4. Therefore, also add point to Input. (But Name remains unimodal.) -
    5. Add p.point to the linearizations of DepHere and DestHere. -
    6. Concatenate the points of the arguments of GoFromTo. -
    7. Add an empty point to DepName and DestName. -
    - -

    -In the resulting grammar, one category is added and -two functions are changed in the abstract syntax (annotated by the step numbers): -

    -
    -  cat
-    Point ;                                               -- 1
-  fun
-    DepHere     : Point -> Dep ;                          -- 2
-    DestHere    : Point -> Dest ;                         -- 2
-  
-
    -

    -The concrete syntax in its entirety looks as follows -

    -
    -  lincat
-    Dep, Dest = {s : Str ; point : Str} ;                 -- 3    
-    Input = {s : Str ; point : Str} ;                     -- 4
-    Name = {s : Str} ;
-    Point = {point : Str} ;                               -- 1
-  lin
-    GoFromTo x y  = {s = ["I want to go"] ++ x.s ++ y.s ; -- 6
-                     point = x.point ++ y.point
-                    } ;
-    DepHere p     = {s = ["from here"] ;                  -- 5
-                     point = p.point
-                    } ;
-    DestHere p    = {s = ["to here"] :                    -- 5
-                     point = p.point
-                    } ;
-    DepName n     = {s = ["from"] ++ n.s ;                -- 7
-                     point = []
-                    } ;
-    DestName n    = {s = ["to"] ++ n.s ;                  -- 7
-                     point = []
-                    } ;
-    Almedal       = {s = "Almedal"} ;
-
    -

    -What we need in addition, to use the grammar in applications, are -

    -
      -
    1. Constructors for Point, e.g. coordinate pairs. -
    2. Top-level categories, like Query and Speech in the original. -
    - -

    -But their proper place is probably in another grammar module, so that -the core Tram Demo grammar can be used in different systems e.g. -encoding clicks in different ways. -

    - -

    Multimodal conversion combinators

    -

    -GF is a functional programming language, and we exploit this -by providing a set of combinators that makes the multimodal conversion easier -and clearer. We start with the type of sequences of pointing gestures. -

    -
    -      Point : Type = {point : Str} ;
-
    -

    -To make a record type multimodal is to extend it with Point. -The record extension operator ** is needed here. -

    -
    -      Dem   : Type -> Type = \t -> t ** Point ;
-
    -

    -To construct, use, and concatenate pointings: -

    -
    -      mkPoint : Str -> Point = \s -> {point = s} ;
-  
-      noPoint : Point = mkPoint [] ;
-  
-      point   : Point -> Str = \p -> p.point ;
-  
-      concatPoint : (x,y : Point) -> Point = \x,y -> 
-        mkPoint (point x ++ point y) ;
-
    -

    -Finally, to add pointing to a record, with the limiting case of no demonstrative needed. -

    -
    -      mkDem : (t : Type) -> t -> Point -> Dem t = \_,x,s -> x ** s ;
-  
-      nonDem : (t : Type) -> t -> Dem t = \t,x -> mkDem t x noPoint ;
-
    -

    -Let us rewrite the Tram Demo grammar by using these combinators: -

    -
    -  oper
-    SS : Type = {s : Str} ;
-  lincat
-    Input, Dep, Dest = Dem SS ; 
-    Name = SS ;
-  
-  lin
-    GoFromTo x y  = {s = ["I want to go"] ++ x.s ++ y.s} ** 
-                    concatPoint x y ;
-    DepHere       = mkDem  SS {s = ["from here"]} ;
-    DestHere      = mkDem  SS {s = ["to here"]} ;
-    DepName n     = nonDem SS {s = ["from"] ++ n.s} ;
-    DestName n    = nonDem SS {s = ["to"] ++ n.s} ;
-  
-    Almedal       = {s = "Almedal"} ;
-
    -

    -The type synonym SS is introduced to make the combinator applications -concise. Notice the use of partial application in DepHere and -DestHere; an equivalent way to write is -

    -
    -    DepHere p     = mkDem  SS {s = ["from here"]} p ;
-
    -

    - -

    Multimodal resource grammars

    -

    -The main advantage of using GF when building dialogue systems is -that various components of the system -can be automatically generated from GF grammars. -Writing these grammars, however, can still be a considerable -task. A case in point are multilingual systems: -how to localize e.g. a system built in a car to -the languages of all those customers to whom the -car is sold? This problem has been the main focus of -GF for some years, and the solution on which most work has been -done is the development of resource grammar libraries. -These libraries work in the same way as program libraries -in software engineering, enabling a division of labour -between linguists and domain experts. -

    -

    -One of the goals in the resource grammars of different -languages has been to provide a language-independent API, -which makes the same resource grammar functions available for -different languages. For instance, the categories -S, NP, and VP are available in all of the -10 languages currently supported, and so is the function -

    -
    -    PredVP : NP -> VP -> S
-
    -

    -which corresponds to the rule S -> NP VP in phrase -structure grammar. However, there are several levels of abstraction -between the function PredVP and the phrase structure rule, -because the rule is implemented in so different ways in different -languages. In particular, discontinuous constituents are needed in -various degrees to make the rule work in different languages. -

    -

    -Now, dealing with discontinuous constituents is one of the demanding -aspects of multilingual grammar writing that the resource grammar -API is designed to hide. But the proposed treatment of integrated -multimodality is heavily dependent on similar things. What can we -do to make multimodal grammars easier to write (for different languages)? -There are two orthogonal answers: -

    -
      -
    1. Use resource grammars to write a unimodal dialogue grammar and - then apply the multimodal - conversion to manually chosen parts. -
    2. Use multimodal resource grammars to derive multimodal - dialogue system grammars directly. -
    - -

    -The multimodal resource grammar library has been obtained from -the unimodal one by applying the multimodal conversion manually. -In addition, the API has been simplified -by leaving out structures needed in written technical documents -(the original application area of GF) but not in spoken dialogue. -

    -

    -In the following subsections, we will show a part of the -multimodal resource grammar API, limited to a fragment that -is needed to get the main ideas and to reimplement the -Tram Demo grammar. The reimplementation shows one more advantage -of the resource grammar approach: dialogue systems can be -automatically instantiated to different languages. -

    - -

    Resource grammar API

    -

    -The resource grammar API has three main kinds of entries: -

    -
      -
    1. Language-independent linguistic structures (``linguistic ontology''), e.g. -
      -    PredVP : NP -> VP -> S ;     -- "Mary helps him"
-
      -
    2. Language-specific syntax extensions, e.g. Swedish and German fronting -topicalization -
      -    TopicObj : NP -> VP -> S ;   -- "honom hjälper Mary"
-
      -
    3. Language-specific lexical constructors, e.g. Germanic Ablaut patterns -
      -    irregV : (sing,sang,sung : Str) -> V ;
-
      -
    - -

    -The first two kinds of entries are cat and fun definitions -in an abstract syntax. The multimodal, restricted API has -e.g. the following categories. Their names are obtained from -the corresponding unimodal categories by prefixing M. -

    -
    -    MS ;     -- multimodal sentence or question
-    MQS ;    -- multimodal wh question
-    MImp ;   -- multimodal imperative
-    MVP ;    -- multimodal verb phrase
-    MNP ;    -- multimodal (demonstrative) noun phrase
-    MAdv ;   -- multimodal (demonstrative) adverbial
-  
-    Point ;  -- pointing gesture
-
    -

    - -

    Multimodal API: functions for building demonstratives

    -

    -Demonstrative pronouns can be used both as noun phrases and -as determiners. -

    -
    -      this_MNP    : Point -> MNP ;        -- this
-      thisDet_MNP : CN -> Point -> MNP ;  -- this car
-
    -

    -There are also demonstrative adverbs, and prepositions give -a productive way to build more adverbs. -

    -
    -      here_MAdv      : Point -> MAdv ;    -- here
-      here7from_MAdv : Point -> MAdv ;    -- from here
-  
-      MPrepNP : Prep -> MNP -> MAdv ;     -- in this car
-
    -

    - -

    Multimodal API: functions for building sentences and phrases

    -

    -A handful of predication rules construct sentences, questions, and imperatives. -

    -
    -      MPredVP   : MNP -> MVP -> MS ;    -- this plane flies here
-      MQPredVP  : MNP -> MVP -> MQS ;   -- does this plane fly here
-      MQuestVP  : IP  -> MVP -> MQS ;   -- who flies here
-      MImpVP    : MVP -> MImp ;         -- fly here!
-
    -

    -Verb phrases are constructed from verbs (inherited as such from -the unimodal API) by providing their complements. -

    -
    -      MUseV     : V   -> MVP ;          -- flies
-      MComplV2  : V2  -> MNP -> MVP ;   -- takes this
-      MComplVV  : VV  -> MVP -> MVP ;   -- wants to take this
-
    -

    -A multimodal adverb can be attached to a verb phrase. -

    -
    -      MAdvVP    : MVP -> MAdv -> MVP ;  -- flies here
-
    -

    - -

    Language-independent implementation: examples

    -

    -The implementation makes heavy use of the multimodal conversion -combinators. It adds a point field to whatever the implementation of the unimodal -category is in any language. Thus, for example -

    -
    -    lincat
-      MVP   = Dem VP ;
-      MNP   = Dem NP ;
-      MAdv  = Dem Adv ;
-  
-    lin 
-      this_MNP = mkDem NP this_NP ;
-      -- i.e. this_MNP p = this_NP ** {point = p.point} ;
-  
-      MComplV2 verb obj = mkDem VP (ComplV2 verb obj) obj ;
-  
-      MAdvVP vp adv = mkDem VP (AdvVP vp adv) (concatPoint vp adv) ;
-
    -

    - -

    Multimodal API: interface to unimodal expressions

    -

    -Using nondemonstrative expressions as demonstratives: -

    -
    -      DemNP   : NP  -> MNP ;
-      DemAdv  : Adv -> MAdv ;
-
    -

    -Building top-level phrases: -

    -
    -      PhrMS   : Pol -> MS   -> Phr ;
-      PhrMS   : Pol -> MS   -> Phr ;
-      PhrMQS  : Pol -> MQS  -> Phr ;
-      PhrMImp : Pol -> MImp -> Phr ;
-
    -

    - -

    Instantiating multimodality to different languages

    -

    -The implementation above has only used the resource grammar API, -not the concrete implementations. The library Demonstrative -is a parametrized module, also called a functor, which -has the following structure -

    -
    -    incomplete concrete DemonstrativeI of Demonstrative = 
-      Cat, TenseX ** open Test, Structural in {
-      
-      -- lincat and lin rules
-  
-      }
-
    -

    -It can be instantiated to different languages as follows. -

    -
    -    concrete DemonstrativeEng of Demonstrative = 
-      CatEng, TenseX ** DemonstrativeI with
-        (Test = TestEng),
-        (Structural = StructuralEng) ;
-  
-    concrete DemonstrativeSwe of Demonstrative = 
-      CatSwe, TenseX ** DemonstrativeI with
-        (Test = TestSwe),
-        (Structural = StructuralSwe) ;
-
    -

    - -

    Language-independent reimplementation of TramDemo

    -

    -Again using the functor idea, we reimplement TramDemo -as follows: -

    -
    -  incomplete concrete TramI of Tram = open Multimodal in {
-  
-  lincat
-    Query = Phr ; Input = MS ; 
-    Dep, Dest = MAdv ; Click = Point ;
-  lin
-    QInput = PhrMS PPos ;
-  
-    GoFromTo x y = 
-      MPredVP (DemNP (UsePron i_Pron)) 
-        (MAdvVP (MAdvVP (MComplVV want_VV (MUseV go_V)) x) y) ;
-  
-    DepHere    = here7from_MAdv ;
-    DestHere   = here7to_MAdv ;
-    DepName s  = MPrepNP from_Prep (DemNP (UsePN (SymbPN (MkSymb s)))) ;
-    DestName s = MPrepNP to_Prep (DemNP (UsePN (SymbPN (MkSymb s)))) ;
-  
-
    -

    -Then we can instantiate this to all languages for which -the Multimodal API has been implemented: -

    -
    -    concrete TramEng of Tram = TramI with 
-      (Multimodal = MultimodalEng) ;
-  
-    concrete TramSwe of Tram = TramI with 
-      (Multimodal = MultimodalSwe) ;
-  
-    concrete TramFre of Tram = TramI with 
-      (Multimodal = MultimodalFre) ;
-
    -

    - -

    The order problem

    -

    -It was pointed out in the section on the multimodal conversion that -the concrete word order may be different from the abstract one, -and vary between different languages. For instance, Swedish -topicalization -

    -
    - Det här tåget vill den här kunden inte ta. -
    -

    -

    -(``this train, this customer doesn't want to take'') may well have -an abstract syntax of a form in which the customer appears -before the train. -

    -

    -This is a problem for the implementor of the resource grammar. -It means that some parts of the resource must be written manually -and not as a functor. -However, the user of the resource can safely -ignore the word order problem, if it is correctly dealt with in -the resource. -

    - -

    A recipe for using the resource library

    -

    -When starting to develop resource grammars, we believed they -would be all that -an application grammarian needs to write a concrete syntax. -However, experience has shown that it can be tough to start -grammar development in this way: selecting functions from -a resource API requires more abstract thinking than just -writing strings, and its take longer to reach testable -results. The most light-weight format is -maybe to start with context-free grammars (which notation is -also supported by GF). Context-free grammars that -give acceptable even though over-generating -results for languages like English are quick to produce. -

    -

    -The experience has led to the following -steps for grammar development. While giving the work -a quick start, this recipe -increases abstraction at a later level, when it is time to -to localize the grammar to different languages. -If context-free notation is used, steps 1 and 2 can -be merged. -

    -
      -
    1. Encode domain ontology in and abstract syntax, Domain. -
    2. Write a rough concrete syntax in English, DomainRough. - This can be oversimplified and overgenerating. -
    3. Reimplement by using the resource library, and build a functor DomainI. - This can helped by example-based grammar writing, where - the examples are generated from DomainRough. -
    4. Instantiate the functor DomainI to different languages, - and test the results by generating linearizations. -
    5. If some rule doesn't satisfy in some language, use the resource in - a different way for that case (compile-time transfer). -
    - - - - - diff --git a/doc/multimodal.txt b/doc/multimodal.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8f41ab22e..000000000 --- a/doc/multimodal.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,728 +0,0 @@ -Demonstrative Expressions and Multimodal Grammars -Author: Aarne Ranta -Last update: %%date(%c) - -% NOTE: this is a txt2tags file. -% Create an html file from this file using: -% txt2tags --toc multimodal.txt - -% Create a latex file from this file using: -% txt2tags -ttex multimodal.txt - -%!target:html - - -==Abstract== - -This document shows a method to write grammars -in which spoken utterances are accompanied by -pointing gestures. A computer application of such -grammars are **multimodal dialogue systems**, in -which the pointing gestures are performed by -mouse clicks and movements. - -After an introduction to the notions of -**demonstratives** and **integrated multimodality**, -we will show by a concrete example -how multimodal grammars can be written in GF -and how they can be used in dialogue systems. -The explanation is given in three stages: - -+ How to write a multimodal grammar by hand. -+ How to add multimodality to a unimodal grammar. -+ How to use a multimodal resource grammar. - - -==Multimodal grammars== - -**Demonstrative expressions** are an old idea. Such -expressions get their meaning from the context. - - //This train// is faster than //that airplane//. - - I want to go from //this place// to //this place//. - -In particular, as in these examples, the meaning -can be obtained from accompanying pointing gestures. - -Thus the meaning-bearing unit is neither the words nor the -gestures alone, but their combination. Demonstratives -thus provide an example of **integrated multimodality**, -as opposed to parallel multimodality. In parallel -multimodality, speech and other modes of communication -are just alternative ways to convey the same information. - - -===Representing demonstratives in semantics and grammar=== - -When formalizing the semantics of demonstratives, we can combine syntax with coordinates: - - I want to go from this place to this place - -is interpreted as something like -``` - want(I, go, this(place,(123,45)), this(place,(98,10))) -``` -Now, the same semantic value can be given in many ways, by performing -the clicks at different points of time in relation to the speech: - - I want to go from this place CLICK(123,45) to this place CLICK(98,10) - - I want to go from this place to this place CLICK(123,45) CLICK(98,10) - - CLICK(123,45) CLICK(98,10) I want to go from this place to this place - -How do we build the value compositionally in parsing? -Traditional parsing is sequential: its input is a string of tokens. -It works for demonstratives only if the pointing is adjacent to -the spoken expression. In the actual input, the demonstrative word -can be separated from the accompanying click by other words. The two -can also be simultaneous. - - -===Asynchronous syntax in GF=== - -What we need is a notion of **asynchronous parsing**, as opposed to -sequential parsing (where demonstrative words and clicks must be -adjacent). - -We can implement asynchronous parsin in GF by exploiting the generality -of **linearization types**. A linearization type is the type of -the **concrete syntax objects** assigned to semantic values. -What a GF grammar defines is a relation -``` - abstract syntax trees <---> concrete syntax objects -``` -When modelling context-free grammar in GF, -the concrete syntax objects are just strings. -But they can be more structured objects as well - in general, they are -**records** of different kinds of objects. For example, -a demonstrative expression can be linearized into a record of two strings. -``` - {s = "this place" ; - this place (coord 123 45) <---> p = "(123,45)" - } -``` -The record -``` - {s = "I want to go from this place to this place" ; - p = "(123,45) (98,10" - } -``` -represents any combination of the sentence and the clicks, as long -as the clicks appear in this order. - - -===Example multimodal grammar: abstract syntax=== - -A simple example of a multimodal GF grammar is the one called -the Tram Demo grammar. It was written by Björn Bringert within -the TALK project as a part of a dialogue system that -deals with queries about tram timetables. The system interprets -a speech input in combination with mouse clicks on a digital map. - -The abstract syntax of (a minimal fragment of) the Tram Demo -grammar is -``` -cat - Input, Dep, Dest, Click ; -fun - GoFromTo : Dep -> Dest -> Input ; -- "I want to go from x to y" - DepHere : Click -> Dep ; -- "from here" with click - DestHere : Click -> Dest ; -- "to here" with click - - CCoord : Int -> Int -> Click ; -- click coordinates -``` -An English concrete syntax of the grammar is -``` -lincat - Input, Dep, Dest = {s : Str ; p : Str} ; - Click = {p : Str} ; - -lin - GoFromTo x y = {s = ["I want to go"] ++ x.s ++ y.s ; p = x.p ++ y.p} ; - DepHere c = {s = ["from here"] ; p = c.p} ; - DestHere c = {s = ["to here"] ; p = c.p} ; - - CCoord x y = {p = "(" ++ x.s ++ "," ++ y.s ++ ")"} ; -``` -When the grammar is used in the actual system, standard parsing methods -are used for interpreting the integrated speech and click input. -Parsing appears on two levels: the speech input parsing -performed by the Nuance speech recognition program (without the clicks), -and the semantics-yielding parser sending input to the dialogue manager. -The latter parser just attaches the clicks to the speech input. The order -of the clicks is preserved, and the parser can hence associate each of -the clicks with proper demonstratives. Here is the grammar used in the -two parsing phases. -``` -cat - Query, -- whole content - Speech ; -- speech only -fun - QueryInput : Input -> Query ; -- the whole content shown - SpeechInput : Input -> Speech ; -- only the speech shown - -lincat - Query, Speech = {s : Str} ; -lin - QueryInput i = {s = i.s ++ ";" ++ i.p} ; - SpeechInput i = {s = i.s} ; -``` - - -===Digression: discontinuous constituents=== - -The GF representation of integrated multimodality is -similar to the representation of **discontinous constituents**. -For instance, assume //has arrived// is a verb phrase in English, -which can be used both in declarative sentences and questions, - - she //has arrived// - - //has// she //arrived// - -In the question, the two words are separated from each other. If -//has arrived// is a constituent of the question, it is thus discontinuous. -To represent such constituents in GF, records can be used: -we split verb phrases (``VP``) into a finite and infinitive part. -``` - lincat VP = {fin, inf : Str} ; - - lin Indic np vp = {s = np.s ++ vp.fin ++ vp.inf} ; - lin Quest np vp = {s = vp.fin ++ np.s ++ vp.inf} ; -``` - -===From grammars to dialogue systems=== - -The general recipe for using GF when building dialogue systems -is to write a grammar with the following components: - -- The abstract syntax defines the semantics (the "ontology") - of the domain of the system. -- The concrete syntaxes define alternative modes of input and output. - - -The engineering advantages of this approach have to do partly with -the declarativity of the description, partly with the tools provided -by GF to derive different components of the system: - -- The type checker guarantees that all the input and output - modes match with the ontology. -- The grammar compiler generates parsers for each input grammar - and generators for each output grammar. -- Translators between GF's abstract syntax and other ontology - description languages enable communication with different - kinds of dialogue managers and cover e.g. Prolog terms and XML objects. -- Translators from GF's concrete syntax to speech recognition formats - make it possible to generate e.g. Nuance grammars and ATK language - models. - - -An example of this process is Björn Bringert's TramDemo. -More recently, grammars have been integrated to the GoDiS dialogue -manager by Prolog representations of abstract syntax. - - -==Adding multimodality to a unimodal grammar== - -This section gives a recipe for making any unimodal grammar -multimodal, by adding pointing gestures to chosen expressions. The recipe -guarantees that the resulting grammar remains semantically well-formed, -i.e. type correct. - - -===The multimodal conversion=== - -The **multimodal conversion** of a grammar consists of seven -steps, of which the first is always the same, the second -involves a decision, and the rest are derivative: - -+ Add the category ```Point``` with a standard linearization type. -``` - cat Point ; - lincat Point = {point : Str} ; -``` -+ (Decision) Decide which constructors are demonstrative, i.e. take - a pointing gesture as an argument. Add a ``Point``` as their last argument. - The new type signatures for such constructors //d// have the form -``` - fun d : ... -> Point -> D -``` -+ (Derivative) Add a ``point`` field to the linearization type //L// of any - demonstrative category //D//, i.e. a category that has at least one demonstrative - constructor: -``` - lincat D = L ** {point : Str} ; -``` -+ (Derivative) If some other category //C// has a constructor //d// that takes - demonstratives as arguments, make it demonstrative by adding a //point// field - to its linearization type. -+ (Derivative) Store the ``point`` field in the linearization //t// of any - constructor //d// that has been made demonstrative: -``` - lin d x1 ... xn p = t x1 ... xn ** {point = p.point} ; -``` -+ (Derivative) For each constructor //f// that takes demonstratives //D_1,...,D_n// - as arguments, collect the //point// fields of the arguments in the //point// - field of the value: -``` - lin f x_1 ... x_m = - t x_1 ... x_m ** {point = x_d1.point ++ ... ++ x_dn.point} ; -``` - Make sure that the pointings ``x_d1.point ... x_dn.point`` are concatenated - in the same order as the arguments appear in the //linearization// //t//, - which is not necessarily the same as the abstract argument order. -+ (Derivative) To preserve type correctness, add an empty - ``point`` field to the linearization //t// of any - constructor //c// of a demonstrative category: -``` - lin c x1 ... xn = t x1 ... xn ** {point = []} ; -``` - - -===An example of the conversion=== - -Start with a Tram Demo grammar with no demonstratives, but just -tram stop names and the indexical //here// (interpreted as e.g. the user's -standing place). -``` -cat - Input, Dep, Dest, Name ; -fun - GoFromTo : Dep -> Dest -> Input ; - DepHere : Dep ; - DestHere : Dest ; - DepName : Name -> Dep ; - DestName : Name -> Dest ; - - Almedal : Name ; -``` -A unimodal English concrete syntax of the grammar is -``` -lincat - Input, Dep, Dest, Name = {s : Str} ; - -lin - GoFromTo x y = {s = ["I want to go"] ++ x.s ++ y.s} ; - DepHere = {s = ["from here"]} ; - DestHere = {s = ["to here"]} ; - DepName n = {s = ["from"] ++ n.s} ; - DestName n = {s = ["to"] ++ n.s} ; - - Almedal = {s = "Almedal"} ; -``` -Let us follow the steps of the recipe. - -+ We add the category ``Point`` and its linearization type. -+ We decide that ``DepHere`` and ``DestHere`` involve a pointing gesture. -+ We add ``point`` to the linearization types of ``Dep`` and ``Dest``. -+ Therefore, also add ``point`` to ``Input``. (But ``Name`` remains unimodal.) -+ Add ``p.point`` to the linearizations of ``DepHere`` and ``DestHere``. -+ Concatenate the points of the arguments of ``GoFromTo``. -+ Add an empty ``point`` to ``DepName`` and ``DestName``. - - -In the resulting grammar, one category is added and -two functions are changed in the abstract syntax (annotated by the step numbers): -``` -cat - Point ; -- 1 -fun - DepHere : Point -> Dep ; -- 2 - DestHere : Point -> Dest ; -- 2 - -``` -The concrete syntax in its entirety looks as follows -``` -lincat - Dep, Dest = {s : Str ; point : Str} ; -- 3 - Input = {s : Str ; point : Str} ; -- 4 - Name = {s : Str} ; - Point = {point : Str} ; -- 1 -lin - GoFromTo x y = {s = ["I want to go"] ++ x.s ++ y.s ; -- 6 - point = x.point ++ y.point - } ; - DepHere p = {s = ["from here"] ; -- 5 - point = p.point - } ; - DestHere p = {s = ["to here"] : -- 5 - point = p.point - } ; - DepName n = {s = ["from"] ++ n.s ; -- 7 - point = [] - } ; - DestName n = {s = ["to"] ++ n.s ; -- 7 - point = [] - } ; - Almedal = {s = "Almedal"} ; -``` -What we need in addition, to use the grammar in applications, are - -+ Constructors for ``Point``, e.g. coordinate pairs. -+ Top-level categories, like ``Query`` and ``Speech`` in the original. - - -But their proper place is probably in another grammar module, so that -the core Tram Demo grammar can be used in different systems e.g. -encoding clicks in different ways. - - -===Multimodal conversion combinators=== - -GF is a functional programming language, and we exploit this -by providing a set of combinators that makes the multimodal conversion easier -and clearer. We start with the type of sequences of pointing gestures. -``` - Point : Type = {point : Str} ; -``` -To make a record type multimodal is to extend it with ``Point``. -The record extension operator ``**`` is needed here. -``` - Dem : Type -> Type = \t -> t ** Point ; -``` -To construct, use, and concatenate pointings: -``` - mkPoint : Str -> Point = \s -> {point = s} ; - - noPoint : Point = mkPoint [] ; - - point : Point -> Str = \p -> p.point ; - - concatPoint : (x,y : Point) -> Point = \x,y -> - mkPoint (point x ++ point y) ; -``` -Finally, to add pointing to a record, with the limiting case of no demonstrative needed. -``` - mkDem : (t : Type) -> t -> Point -> Dem t = \_,x,s -> x ** s ; - - nonDem : (t : Type) -> t -> Dem t = \t,x -> mkDem t x noPoint ; -``` -Let us rewrite the Tram Demo grammar by using these combinators: -``` -oper - SS : Type = {s : Str} ; -lincat - Input, Dep, Dest = Dem SS ; - Name = SS ; - -lin - GoFromTo x y = {s = ["I want to go"] ++ x.s ++ y.s} ** - concatPoint x y ; - DepHere = mkDem SS {s = ["from here"]} ; - DestHere = mkDem SS {s = ["to here"]} ; - DepName n = nonDem SS {s = ["from"] ++ n.s} ; - DestName n = nonDem SS {s = ["to"] ++ n.s} ; - - Almedal = {s = "Almedal"} ; -``` -The type synonym ``SS`` is introduced to make the combinator applications -concise. Notice the use of partial application in ``DepHere`` and -``DestHere``; an equivalent way to write is -``` - DepHere p = mkDem SS {s = ["from here"]} p ; -``` - - -==Multimodal resource grammars== - -The main advantage of using GF when building dialogue systems is -that various components of the system -can be automatically generated from GF grammars. -Writing these grammars, however, can still be a considerable -task. A case in point are multilingual systems: -how to localize e.g. a system built in a car to -the languages of all those customers to whom the -car is sold? This problem has been the main focus of -GF for some years, and the solution on which most work has been -done is the development of **resource grammar libraries**. -These libraries work in the same way as program libraries -in software engineering, enabling a division of labour -between linguists and domain experts. - -One of the goals in the resource grammars of different -languages has been to provide a **language-independent API**, -which makes the same resource grammar functions available for -different languages. For instance, the categories -``S``, ``NP``, and ``VP`` are available in all of the -10 languages currently supported, and so is the function -``` - PredVP : NP -> VP -> S -``` -which corresponds to the rule ``S -> NP VP`` in phrase -structure grammar. However, there are several levels of abstraction -between the function ``PredVP`` and the phrase structure rule, -because the rule is implemented in so different ways in different -languages. In particular, discontinuous constituents are needed in -various degrees to make the rule work in different languages. - -Now, dealing with discontinuous constituents is one of the demanding -aspects of multilingual grammar writing that the resource grammar -API is designed to hide. But the proposed treatment of integrated -multimodality is heavily dependent on similar things. What can we -do to make multimodal grammars easier to write (for different languages)? -There are two orthogonal answers: - -+ Use resource grammars to write a unimodal dialogue grammar and - then apply the multimodal - conversion to manually chosen parts. -+ Use **multimodal resource grammars** to derive multimodal - dialogue system grammars directly. - - -The multimodal resource grammar library has been obtained from -the unimodal one by applying the multimodal conversion manually. -In addition, the API has been simplified -by leaving out structures needed in written technical documents -(the original application area of GF) but not in spoken dialogue. - -In the following subsections, we will show a part of the -multimodal resource grammar API, limited to a fragment that -is needed to get the main ideas and to reimplement the -Tram Demo grammar. The reimplementation shows one more advantage -of the resource grammar approach: dialogue systems can be -automatically instantiated to different languages. - - - - -===Resource grammar API=== - -The resource grammar API has three main kinds of entries: - -+ Language-independent linguistic structures (``linguistic ontology''), e.g. -``` - PredVP : NP -> VP -> S ; -- "Mary helps him" -``` -+ Language-specific syntax extensions, e.g. Swedish and German fronting -topicalization -``` - TopicObj : NP -> VP -> S ; -- "honom hjälper Mary" -``` -+ Language-specific lexical constructors, e.g. Germanic //Ablaut// patterns -``` - irregV : (sing,sang,sung : Str) -> V ; -``` - - -The first two kinds of entries are ``cat`` and ``fun`` definitions -in an abstract syntax. The multimodal, restricted API has -e.g. the following categories. Their names are obtained from -the corresponding unimodal categories by prefixing ``M``. -``` - MS ; -- multimodal sentence or question - MQS ; -- multimodal wh question - MImp ; -- multimodal imperative - MVP ; -- multimodal verb phrase - MNP ; -- multimodal (demonstrative) noun phrase - MAdv ; -- multimodal (demonstrative) adverbial - - Point ; -- pointing gesture -``` - - - -===Multimodal API: functions for building demonstratives=== - -Demonstrative pronouns can be used both as noun phrases and -as determiners. -``` - this_MNP : Point -> MNP ; -- this - thisDet_MNP : CN -> Point -> MNP ; -- this car -``` -There are also demonstrative adverbs, and prepositions give -a productive way to build more adverbs. -``` - here_MAdv : Point -> MAdv ; -- here - here7from_MAdv : Point -> MAdv ; -- from here - - MPrepNP : Prep -> MNP -> MAdv ; -- in this car -``` - - -===Multimodal API: functions for building sentences and phrases=== - -A handful of predication rules construct sentences, questions, and imperatives. -``` - MPredVP : MNP -> MVP -> MS ; -- this plane flies here - MQPredVP : MNP -> MVP -> MQS ; -- does this plane fly here - MQuestVP : IP -> MVP -> MQS ; -- who flies here - MImpVP : MVP -> MImp ; -- fly here! -``` -Verb phrases are constructed from verbs (inherited as such from -the unimodal API) by providing their complements. -``` - MUseV : V -> MVP ; -- flies - MComplV2 : V2 -> MNP -> MVP ; -- takes this - MComplVV : VV -> MVP -> MVP ; -- wants to take this -``` -A multimodal adverb can be attached to a verb phrase. -``` - MAdvVP : MVP -> MAdv -> MVP ; -- flies here -``` - - - - -===Language-independent implementation: examples=== - -The implementation makes heavy use of the multimodal conversion -combinators. It adds a ``point`` field to whatever the implementation of the unimodal -category is in any language. Thus, for example -``` - lincat - MVP = Dem VP ; - MNP = Dem NP ; - MAdv = Dem Adv ; - - lin - this_MNP = mkDem NP this_NP ; - -- i.e. this_MNP p = this_NP ** {point = p.point} ; - - MComplV2 verb obj = mkDem VP (ComplV2 verb obj) obj ; - - MAdvVP vp adv = mkDem VP (AdvVP vp adv) (concatPoint vp adv) ; -``` - - - -===Multimodal API: interface to unimodal expressions=== - -Using nondemonstrative expressions as demonstratives: -``` - DemNP : NP -> MNP ; - DemAdv : Adv -> MAdv ; -``` -Building top-level phrases: -``` - PhrMS : Pol -> MS -> Phr ; - PhrMS : Pol -> MS -> Phr ; - PhrMQS : Pol -> MQS -> Phr ; - PhrMImp : Pol -> MImp -> Phr ; -``` - - -===Instantiating multimodality to different languages=== - -The implementation above has only used the resource grammar API, -not the concrete implementations. The library ``Demonstrative`` -is a **parametrized module**, also called a **functor**, which -has the following structure -``` - incomplete concrete DemonstrativeI of Demonstrative = - Cat, TenseX ** open Test, Structural in { - - -- lincat and lin rules - - } -``` -It can be **instantiated** to different languages as follows. -``` - concrete DemonstrativeEng of Demonstrative = - CatEng, TenseX ** DemonstrativeI with - (Test = TestEng), - (Structural = StructuralEng) ; - - concrete DemonstrativeSwe of Demonstrative = - CatSwe, TenseX ** DemonstrativeI with - (Test = TestSwe), - (Structural = StructuralSwe) ; -``` - - - -===Language-independent reimplementation of TramDemo=== - -Again using the functor idea, we reimplement ``TramDemo`` -as follows: -``` -incomplete concrete TramI of Tram = open Multimodal in { - -lincat - Query = Phr ; Input = MS ; - Dep, Dest = MAdv ; Click = Point ; -lin - QInput = PhrMS PPos ; - - GoFromTo x y = - MPredVP (DemNP (UsePron i_Pron)) - (MAdvVP (MAdvVP (MComplVV want_VV (MUseV go_V)) x) y) ; - - DepHere = here7from_MAdv ; - DestHere = here7to_MAdv ; - DepName s = MPrepNP from_Prep (DemNP (UsePN (SymbPN (MkSymb s)))) ; - DestName s = MPrepNP to_Prep (DemNP (UsePN (SymbPN (MkSymb s)))) ; - -``` -Then we can instantiate this to all languages for which -the ``Multimodal`` API has been implemented: -``` - concrete TramEng of Tram = TramI with - (Multimodal = MultimodalEng) ; - - concrete TramSwe of Tram = TramI with - (Multimodal = MultimodalSwe) ; - - concrete TramFre of Tram = TramI with - (Multimodal = MultimodalFre) ; -``` - - - -===The order problem=== - -It was pointed out in the section on the multimodal conversion that -the concrete word order may be different from the abstract one, -and vary between different languages. For instance, Swedish -topicalization - - Det här tåget vill den här kunden inte ta. - -(``this train, this customer doesn't want to take'') may well have -an abstract syntax of a form in which the customer appears -before the train. - -This is a problem for the implementor of the resource grammar. -It means that some parts of the resource must be written manually -and not as a functor. -However, the //user// of the resource can safely -ignore the word order problem, if it is correctly dealt with in -the resource. - - -===A recipe for using the resource library=== - -When starting to develop resource grammars, we believed they -would be all that -an application grammarian needs to write a concrete syntax. -However, experience has shown that it can be tough to start -grammar development in this way: selecting functions from -a resource API requires more abstract thinking than just -writing strings, and its take longer to reach testable -results. The most light-weight format is -maybe to start with context-free grammars (which notation is -also supported by GF). Context-free grammars that -give acceptable even though over-generating -results for languages like English are quick to produce. - -The experience has led to the following -steps for grammar development. While giving the work -a quick start, this recipe -increases abstraction at a later level, when it is time to -to localize the grammar to different languages. -If context-free notation is used, steps 1 and 2 can -be merged. - -+ Encode domain ontology in and abstract syntax, ``Domain``. -+ Write a rough concrete syntax in English, ``DomainRough``. - This can be oversimplified and overgenerating. -+ Reimplement by using the resource library, and build a functor ``DomainI``. - This can helped by **example-based grammar writing**, where - the examples are generated from ``DomainRough``. -+ Instantiate the functor ``DomainI`` to different languages, - and test the results by generating linearizations. -+ If some rule doesn't satisfy in some language, use the resource in - a different way for that case (**compile-time transfer**). - -