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383 lines
14 KiB
HTML
<html>
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<body>
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<i> Produced by
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gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
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(c) Aarne Ranta (aarne@cs.chalmers.se) 2002 under GNU GPL.
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</i>
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<p>
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<h1> Abstract Syntax for Multilingual Resource Grammar</h1>
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<p>
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Aarne Ranta 2002 -- 2003
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<p>
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Although concrete syntax differs a lot between different languages,
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many structures can be treated as common, on the level
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of abstraction that GF provides.
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What we will present in the following is a linguistically oriented abstract
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syntax that has been successfully defined for the following languages:
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<p>
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<li><tt>Eng</tt>lish
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<li><tt>Fin</tt>nish
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<li><tt>Fre</tt>nch
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<li><tt>Ger</tt>man
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<li><tt>Ita</tt>lian
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<li><tt>Rus</tt>sian
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<li><tt>Swe</tt>dish
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<p>
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The three-letter prefixes are used in file names all over the resource
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grammar library; we refer to them commonly as <tt>X</tt> below.
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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The grammar has been applied to define language
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fragments on technical or near-to-technical domains: database queries,
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video recorder dialogue systems, software specifications, and a
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health-related phrase book. Each new application helped to identify some
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missing structures in the resource and suggested some additions, but the
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number of required additions was usually small.
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To use the resource in applications, you need the following
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<tt>cat</tt> and <tt>fun</tt> rules in <tt>oper</tt> form, completed by taking the
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<tt>lincat</tt> and <tt>lin</tt> judgements of a particular language. This is done
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by using, instead of this module, the <tt>reuse</tt> module which has the name
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<tt>ResourceX</tt>. It is located in the subdirectory
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<tt>grammars/resource/lang</tt> where <tt>lang</tt> is the full name of the language.
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<pre>
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abstract Combinations = PredefAbs ** {
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h2> Categories</h2>
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<p>
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The categories of this resource grammar are mostly 'standard' categories
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of linguistics. Their is no claim that they correspond to semantic categories
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definable in type theory: to define such correspondences is the business
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of applications grammars. In general, the correspondence between linguistic
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and semantic categories is many-to-many.
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<p>
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Categories that may look special are <tt>Adj2</tt>, <tt>Fun</tt>, and <tt>TV</tt>. They are all
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instances of endowing another category with a complement, which can be either
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a direct object (whose case may vary) or a prepositional phrase. Prepositional
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phrases that are not complements belong to the category
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<tt>AdV</tt> of adverbials.
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<p>
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In each group below, some categories are <b>lexical</b> in the sense of only
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containing atomic elements. These elements are not necessarily expressed by
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one word in all languages; the essential thing is that they have no
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constituents. Thus they have no productions in this part of the
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resource grammar. The <tt>ParadigmsX</tt> grammars provide ways of defining
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lexical elements.
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<p>
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Lexical categories are listed before other categories
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in each group and divided by an empty line.
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Nouns and noun phrases</h3>
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<p>
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<pre>
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cat
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N ; -- simple common noun, e.g. "car"
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PN ; -- proper name, e.g. "John", "New York"
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Fun ; -- function word, e.g. "mother (of)"
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Fun2 ; -- two-place function, e.g. "flight (from) (to)"
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CN ; -- common noun phrase, e.g. "red car", "car that John owns"
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NP ; -- noun phrase, e.g. "John", "all cars", "you"
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Det ; -- determiner, e.g. "every", "all"
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Num ; -- numeral, e.g. "three", "879"
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Adjectives and adjectival phrases</h3>
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<p>
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<pre>
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Adj1 ; -- one-place adjective, e.g. "even"
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Adj2 ; -- two-place adjective, e.g. "divisible (by)"
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AdjDeg ; -- degree adjective, e.g. "big/bigger/biggest"
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AP ; -- adjective phrase, e.g. "divisible by two", "bigger than John"
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</pre>
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The difference between <tt>Adj1</tt> and <tt>AdjDeg</tt> is that the former has no
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comparison forms.
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Verbs and verb phrases</h3>
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<p>
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<pre>
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V ; -- one-place verb, e.g. "walk"
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TV ; -- two-place verb, e.g. "love", "wait (for)", "switch on"
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V3 ; -- three-place verb, e.g. "give", "prefer (stg) (to stg)"
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VS ; -- sentence-compl. verb, e.g. "say", "prove"
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VV ; -- verb-compl. verb, e.g. "can", "want"
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VG ; -- verbal group, e.g. "switch the light on"
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VP ; -- verb phrase, e.g. "switch the light on", "don't run"
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Adverbials</h3>
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<p>
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This group has no lexical categories.
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<pre>
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AdV ; -- adverbial e.g. "now", "in the house"
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AdA ; -- ad-adjective e.g. "very"
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AdS ; -- sentence adverbial e.g. "therefore", "otherwise"
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Prep ; -- pre/postposition, case e.g. "after", Adessive
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Sentences and relative clauses</h3>
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<p>
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This group has no lexical categories.
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<pre>
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S ; -- sentence, e.g. "John walks"
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Slash ; -- sentence without NP, e.g. "John waits for (...)"
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RP ; -- relative pronoun, e.g. "which", "the mother of whom"
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RC ; -- relative clause, e.g. "who walks", "that I wait for"
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Questions and imperatives</h3>
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<p>
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This group has no lexical categories.
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<pre>
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IP ; -- interrogative pronoun, e.g. "who", "whose mother", "which yellow car"
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IAdv ; -- interrogative adverb., e.g. "when", "why"
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Qu ; -- question, e.g. "who walks"
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Imp ; -- imperative, e.g. "walk!"
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Coordination and subordination</h3>
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<p>
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<pre>
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Conj ; -- conjunction, e.g. "and"
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ConjD ; -- distributed conj. e.g. "both - and"
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Subj ; -- subjunction, e.g. "if", "when"
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ListS ; -- list of sentences
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ListAP ; -- list of adjectival phrases
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ListNP ; -- list of noun phrases
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Complete utterances</h3>
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<p>
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This group has no lexical categories.
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<pre>
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Phr ; -- full phrase, e.g. "John walks.","Who walks?", "Wait for me!"
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Text ; -- sequence of phrases e.g. "One is odd. Therefore, two is even."
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h2> Rules</h2>
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<p>
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This set of rules is minimal, in the sense of defining the simplest combinations
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of categories and not having redundant rules.
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When the resource grammar is used as a library, it will often be useful to
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access it through an intermediate library that defines more rules as
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'macros' for combinations of the ones below.
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Nouns and noun phrases</h3>
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<p>
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<pre>
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fun
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UseN : N -> CN ; -- "car"
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UsePN : PN -> NP ; -- "John"
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UseFun : Fun -> CN ; -- "successor"
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UseInt : Int -> Num ; -- "32" --- assumes i > 1
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SymbPN : String -> PN ; -- "x"
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SymbCN : CN -> String -> CN ; -- "number x"
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ModAdj : AP -> CN -> CN ; -- "red car"
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DetNP : Det -> CN -> NP ; -- "every car"
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MassNP : CN -> NP ; -- "wine"
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IndefOneNP : CN -> NP ; -- "a car", "cars"
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IndefNumNP : Num -> CN -> NP ; -- "houses", "86 houses"
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DefOneNP : CN -> NP ; -- "the car"
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DefNumNP : Num -> CN -> NP ; -- "the cars", "the 86 cars"
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ModGenOne : NP -> CN -> NP ; -- "John's car"
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ModGenNum : Num -> NP -> CN -> NP ; -- "John's cars", "John's 86 cars"
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AppFun : Fun -> NP -> CN ; -- "successor of zero"
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AppFun2 : Fun2 -> NP -> Fun ; -- "flight from Paris"
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CNthatS : CN -> S -> CN ; -- "idea that the Earth is flat"
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NoNum : Num ; -- no numeral modifier
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Adjectives and adjectival phrases</h3>
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<p>
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<pre>
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AdjP1 : Adj1 -> AP ; -- "red"
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PositAdjP : AdjDeg -> AP ; -- "old"
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ComplAdj : Adj2 -> NP -> AP ; -- "divisible by two"
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ComparAdjP : AdjDeg -> NP -> AP ; -- "older than John"
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SuperlNP : AdjDeg -> CN -> NP ; -- "the oldest man"
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Verbs and verb phrases</h3>
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<p>
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The principal way of forming sentences (<tt>S</tt>) is by combining a noun phrase
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with a verb phrase (the <tt>PredVP</tt> rule below). In addition to this, verb
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phrases have uses in relative clauses and questions. Verb phrases already
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have (or have not) a negation, but they are formed from verbal groups
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(<tt>VG</tt>), which have both positive and negative forms.
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<pre>
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PredV : V -> VG ; -- "walk", "doesn't walk"
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PredPassV : V -> VG ; -- "is seen", "is not seen"
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PredTV : TV -> NP -> VG ; -- "sees John", "doesn't see John"
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PredVS : VS -> S -> VG ; -- "says that I run", "doesn't say..."
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PredVV : VV -> VG -> VG ; -- "can run", "can't run", "tries to run"
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PredV3 : V3 -> NP -> NP -> VG ; -- "prefers wine to beer"
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PredNP : NP -> VG ; -- "is John", "is not John"
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PredAdV : AdV -> VG ; -- "is everywhere", "is not in France"
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PredAP : AP -> VG ; -- "is old", "isn't old"
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PredCN : CN -> VG ; -- "is a man", "isn't a man"
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VTrans : TV -> V ; -- "loves"
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PosVG,NegVG : VG -> VP ; --
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Adverbs</h3>
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<p>
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Here is how complex adverbs can be formed and used.
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<pre>
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AdjAdv : AP -> AdV ; -- "freely", "more consciously than you"
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PrepNP : Prep -> NP -> AdV ; -- "in London", "after the war"
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AdvVP : VP -> AdV -> VP ; -- "always walks", "walks in the park"
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AdvCN : CN -> AdV -> CN ; -- "house in London", "house today"
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AdvAP : AdA -> AP -> AP ; -- "very good"
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Sentences and relative clauses</h3>
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<p>
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<pre>
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PredVP : NP -> VP -> S ; -- "John walks"
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PosSlashTV,NegSlashTV : NP -> TV -> Slash ; -- "John sees", "John doesn't see"
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OneVP : VP -> S ; -- "one walks"
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ThereNP : NP -> S ; -- "there is a bar","there are 86 bars"
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IdRP : RP ; -- "which"
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FunRP : Fun -> RP -> RP ; -- "the successor of which"
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RelVP : RP -> VP -> RC ; -- "who walks", "who doesn't walk"
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RelSlash : RP -> Slash -> RC ; -- "that I wait for"/"for which I wait"
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ModRC : CN -> RC -> CN ; -- "man who walks"
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RelSuch : S -> RC ; -- "such that it is even"
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Questions and imperatives</h3>
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<p>
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<pre>
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WhoOne, WhoMany : IP ; -- "who (is)", "who (are)"
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WhatOne, WhatMany : IP ; -- "what (is)", "what (are)"
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FunIP : Fun -> IP -> IP ; -- "the mother of whom"
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NounIPOne, NounIPMany : CN -> IP ; -- "which car", "which cars"
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QuestVP : NP -> VP -> Qu ; -- "does John walk"; "doesn't John walk"
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IntVP : IP -> VP -> Qu ; -- "who walks"
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IntSlash : IP -> Slash -> Qu ; -- "whom does John see"
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QuestAdv : IAdv -> NP -> VP -> Qu ; -- "why do you walk"
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IsThereNP : NP -> Qu ; -- "is there a bar", "are there (86) bars"
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ImperVP : VP -> Imp ; -- "be a man"
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IndicPhrase : S -> Phr ; -- "I walk."
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QuestPhrase : Qu -> Phr ; -- "Do I walk?"
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ImperOne, ImperMany : Imp -> Phr ; -- "Be a man!", "Be men!"
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AdvS : AdS -> S -> Phr ; -- "Therefore, 2 is prime."
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Coordination</h3>
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<p>
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We consider <i>n</i>-ary coordination, with <i>n</i> > 1. To this end, we have introduced
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a <b>list category</b> <tt>ListX</tt> for each category <tt>X</tt> whose expressions we want to
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conjoin. Each list category has two constructors, the base case being <tt>TwoX</tt>.
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We have not defined coordination of all possible categories here,
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since it can be tricky in many languages. For instance, <tt>VP</tt> coordination
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is linguistically problematic in German because <tt>VP</tt> is a discontinuous
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category.
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<pre>
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ConjS : Conj -> ListS -> S ; -- "John walks and Mary runs"
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ConjAP : Conj -> ListAP -> AP ; -- "even and prime"
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ConjNP : Conj -> ListNP -> NP ; -- "John or Mary"
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ConjDS : ConjD -> ListS -> S ; -- "either John walks or Mary runs"
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ConjDAP : ConjD -> ListAP -> AP ; -- "both even and prime"
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ConjDNP : ConjD -> ListNP -> NP ; -- "either John or Mary"
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TwoS : S -> S -> ListS ;
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ConsS : ListS -> S -> ListS ;
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TwoAP : AP -> AP -> ListAP ;
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ConsAP : ListAP -> AP -> ListAP ;
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TwoNP : NP -> NP -> ListNP ;
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ConsNP : ListNP -> NP -> ListNP ;
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h3> Subordination</h3>
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<p>
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Subjunctions are different from conjunctions, but form
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a uniform category among themselves.
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<pre>
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SubjS : Subj -> S -> S -> S ; -- "if 2 is odd, 3 is even"
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SubjImper : Subj -> S -> Imp -> Imp ; -- "if it is hot, use a glove!"
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SubjQu : Subj -> S -> Qu -> Qu ; -- "if you are new, who are you?"
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SubjVP : VP -> Subj -> S -> VP ; -- "(a man who) sings when he runs"
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h2> One-word utterances</h2>
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<p>
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These are, more generally, <b>one-phrase utterances</b>. The list below
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is very incomplete.
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<pre>
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PhrNP : NP -> Phr ; -- "Some man.", "John."
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PhrOneCN, PhrManyCN : CN -> Phr ; -- "A car.", "Cars."
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PhrIP : IAdv -> Phr ; -- "Who?"
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PhrIAdv : IAdv -> Phr ; -- "Why?"
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</pre>
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<p>
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<!-- NEW -->
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<h2> Text formation</h2>
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<p>
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A text is a sequence of phrases. It is defined like a non-empty list.
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<pre>
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OnePhr : Phr -> Text ;
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ConsPhr : Phr -> Text -> Text ;
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} ;
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</pre>
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</body>
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</html>
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