# Using the Python Haskell Java C# binding to the C runtime

Choose a language: Haskell Python Java C#

#### Krasimir Angelov, July 2015 - August 2017

## Loading the Grammar

Before you use the Python binding you need to import the PGF2 module pgf module pgf package PGFSharp package:

    >>> import pgf

    Prelude> import PGF2

    import org.grammaticalframework.pgf.*;

    using PGFSharp;

Once you have the module imported, you can use the `dir` and `help` functions to see what kind of functionality is available. `dir` takes an object and returns a list of methods available in the object:

    >>> dir(pgf)

`help` is a little bit more advanced and it tries to produce more human readable documentation, which more over contains comments:

    >>> help(pgf)

A grammar is loaded by calling the method pgf.readPGF the function readPGF the method PGF.readPGF the method PGF.ReadPGF:

    >>> gr = pgf.readPGF("App12.pgf")

    Prelude PGF2> gr <- readPGF "App12.pgf"

    PGF gr = PGF.readPGF("App12.pgf");

    PGF gr = PGF.ReadPGF("App12.pgf");

From the grammar you can query the set of available languages. It is accessible through the property `languages` which is a map from language name to an object of class `pgf.Concr` type `Concr` class `Concr` class `Concr` which respresents the language. For example the following will extract the English language:

    >>> eng = gr.languages["AppEng"]
    >>> print(eng)
    <pgf.Concr object at 0x7f7dfa4471d0>

    Prelude PGF2> let Just eng = Data.Map.lookup "AppEng" (languages gr)
    Prelude PGF2> :t eng
    eng :: Concr

    Concr eng = gr.getLanguages().get("AppEng");

    Concr eng = gr.Languages["AppEng"];

## Parsing

All language specific services are available as methods of the class `pgf.Concr` functions that take as an argument an object of type `Concr` methods of the class `Concr` methods of the class `Concr`. For example to invoke the parser, you can call:

    >>> i = eng.parse("this is a small theatre")

    Prelude PGF2> let res = parse eng (startCat gr) "this is a small theatre"

    Iterable<ExprProb> iterable = eng.parse(gr.getStartCat(), "this is a small theatre");

    IEnumerable<Tuple<Expr, float>> enumerable = eng.Parse("this is a small theatre");

This gives you an iterator which can enumerate all possible abstract trees. You can get the next tree by calling `next`:

    >>> p,e = i.next()

or by calling __next__ if you are using Python 3:

    >>> p,e = i.__next__()

This gives you a result of type `ParseOutput`. If the result is `ParseFailed` then the parser has failed and you will get the offset and the token where the parser got stuck. If the parsing was successful then you get `ParseOk` with a potentially infinite list of parse results:

    Prelude PGF2> let ParseOk ((e,p):rest) = res

This gives you an iterable which can enumerate all possible abstract trees. You can get the next tree by calling `next`:

    Iterator<ExprProb> iter = iterable.iterator();
    ExprProb ep = iter.next();

This gives you an enumerable which can enumerate all possible abstract trees. You can get the next tree by calling `MoveNext`:

    IEnumerator<Tuple<Expr, float>> enumerator = enumerable.GetEnumerator();
    enumerator.MoveNext();
    Tuple<Expr, float> ep = enumerator.Current;

The results are pairs of probability and tree. The probabilities are negated logarithmic probabilities and this means that the lowest number encodes the most probable result. The possible trees are returned in decreasing probability order (i.e. increasing negated logarithm). The first tree should have the smallest `p`:

    >>> print(p)
    35.9166526794

    Prelude PGF2> print p
    35.9166526794

    System.out.println(ep.getProb());
    35.9166526794

    Console.WriteLine(ep.Item2);
    35.9166526794

and this is the corresponding abstract tree:

    >>> print(e)
    PhrUtt NoPConj (UttS (UseCl (TTAnt TPres ASimul) PPos (PredVP (DetNP (DetQuant this_Quant NumSg)) (UseComp (CompNP (DetCN (DetQuant IndefArt NumSg) (AdjCN (PositA small_A) (UseN theatre_N)))))))) NoVoc

    Prelude PGF2> print e
    PhrUtt NoPConj (UttS (UseCl (TTAnt TPres ASimul) PPos (PredVP (DetNP (DetQuant this_Quant NumSg)) (UseComp (CompNP (DetCN (DetQuant IndefArt NumSg) (AdjCN (PositA small_A) (UseN theatre_N)))))))) NoVoc

    System.out.println(ep.getExpr());
    PhrUtt NoPConj (UttS (UseCl (TTAnt TPres ASimul) PPos (PredVP (DetNP (DetQuant this_Quant NumSg)) (UseComp (CompNP (DetCN (DetQuant IndefArt NumSg) (AdjCN (PositA small_A) (UseN theatre_N)))))))) NoVoc

    Console.WriteLine(ep.Item1);
    PhrUtt NoPConj (UttS (UseCl (TTAnt TPres ASimul) PPos (PredVP (DetNP (DetQuant this_Quant NumSg)) (UseComp (CompNP (DetCN (DetQuant IndefArt NumSg) (AdjCN (PositA small_A) (UseN theatre_N)))))))) NoVoc

Note that depending on the grammar it is absolutely possible that for a single sentence you might get infinitely many trees. In other cases the number of trees might be finite but still enormous. The parser is specifically designed to be lazy, which means that each tree is returned as soon as it is found before exhausting the full search space. For grammars with a patological number of trees it is advisable to pick only the top `N` trees and to ignore the rest.

The `parse` method has also the following optional parameters:

cat | start category
n | maximum number of trees
heuristics | a real number from 0 to 1
callbacks | a list of category and callback function

By using these parameters it is possible for instance to change the start category for the parser or to limit the number of trees returned from the parser. For example parsing with a different start category can be done as follows:

    >>> i = eng.parse("a small theatre", cat=pgf.readType("NP"))

There is also the function `parseWithHeuristics` which takes two more paramaters which let you to have a better control over the parser's behaviour:

    Prelude PGF2> let res = parseWithHeuristics eng (startCat gr) heuristic_factor callbacks

There is also the method `parseWithHeuristics` which takes two more paramaters which let you to have a better control over the parser's behaviour:

    Iterable<ExprProb> iterable = eng.parseWithHeuristics(gr.startCat(), heuristic_factor, callbacks);

The `Parse` method has also the following optional parameters:

cat | start category
heuristics | a real number from 0 to 1

By using these parameters it is possible for instance to change the start category for the parser. For example parsing with a different start category can be done as follows:

    IEnumerable<Tuple<Expr, float>> enumerable = eng.Parse("this is a small theatre", cat: Type.ReadType("NP"));

The heuristics factor can be used to trade parsing speed for quality. By default the list of trees is sorted by probability and this corresponds to factor 0.0. When we increase the factor then parsing becomes faster but at the same time the sorting becomes imprecise. The worst factor is 1.0. In any case the parser always returns the same set of trees but in different order. Our experience is that even a factor of about 0.6-0.8 with the translation grammar still orders the most probable tree on top of the list but further down the list, the trees become shuffled.

The callbacks is a list of functions that can be used for recognizing literals. For example we use those for recognizing names and unknown words in the translator.

## Linearization

You can either linearize the result from the parser back to another language, or you can explicitly construct a tree and then linearize it in any language. For example, we can create a new expression like this:

    >>> e = pgf.readExpr("AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N)")

    Prelude PGF2> let Just e = readExpr "AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N)"

    Expr e = Expr.readExpr("AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N)");

    Expr e = Expr.ReadExpr("AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N)");

and then we can linearize it:

    >>> print(eng.linearize(e))
    red theatre

    Prelude PGF2> putStrLn (linearize eng e)
    red theatre

    System.out.println(eng.linearize(e));
    red theatre

    Console.WriteLine(eng.Linearize(e));
    red theatre

This method produces only a single linearization. If you use variants in the grammar then you might want to see all possible linearizations. For that purpouse you should use `linearizeAll`:

    >>> for s in eng.linearizeAll(e):
           print(s)
    red theatre
    red theater

    Prelude PGF2> mapM_ putStrLn (linearizeAll eng e)
    red theatre
    red theater

    for (String s : eng.linearizeAll(e)) {
        System.out.println(s);
    }
    red theatre
    red theater

    foreach (String s in eng.LinearizeAll(e)) {
        Console.WriteLine(s);
    }
    red theatre
    red theater

If, instead, you need an inflection table with all possible forms then the right method to use is `tabularLinearize`:

    >>> eng.tabularLinearize(e):
    {'s Sg Nom': 'red theatre', 's Pl Nom': 'red theatres', 's Pl Gen': "red theatres'", 's Sg Gen': "red theatre's"}

    Prelude PGF2> tabularLinearize eng e
    [("s Sg Nom","red theatre"),("s Sg Gen","red theatre's"),("s Pl Nom","red theatres"),("s Pl Gen","red theatres'")]

    for (Map.Entry<String,String> entry : eng.tabularLinearize(e).entrySet()) {
        System.out.println(entry.getKey() + ": " + entry.getValue());
    }
    s Sg Nom: red theatre
    s Pl Nom: red theatres
    s Pl Gen: red theatres'
    s Sg Gen: red theatre's

    foreach (Map.Entry<String,String> entry in eng.TabularLinearize(e).EntrySet()) {  //// TODO
        Console.WriteLine(entry.Key + ": " + entry.Value);
    }
    s Sg Nom: red theatre
    s Pl Nom: red theatres
    s Pl Gen: red theatres'
    s Sg Gen: red theatre's

Finally, you could also get a linearization which is bracketed into a list of phrases:

    >>> [b] = eng.bracketedLinearize(e)
    >>> print(b)
    (CN:4 (AP:1 (A:0 red)) (CN:3 (N:2 theatre)))

    Prelude PGF2> let [b] = bracketedLinearize eng e
    Prelude PGF2> putStrLn (showBracketedString b)
    (CN:4 (AP:1 (A:0 red)) (CN:3 (N:2 theatre)))

    Object[] bs = eng.bracketedLinearize(e);

    Bracket b = eng.BracketedLinearize(e);

Each element in the sequence above is either a string or an object of type `pgf.Bracket`. When it is actually a bracket then the object has the following properties:

- `cat` - the syntactic category for this bracket
- `fid` - an id which identifies this bracket in the bracketed string. If there are discontinuous phrases this id will be shared for all brackets belonging to the same phrase.
- `lindex` - the constituent index
- `fun` - the abstract function for this bracket
- `children` - a list with the children of this bracket

The list above contains elements of type `BracketedString`. This type has two constructors:

- `Leaf` with only one argument of type `String` that contains the current word
- `Bracket` with the following arguments:
  - `cat :: String` - the syntactic category for this bracket
  - `fid :: Int` - an id which identifies this bracket in the bracketed string. If there are discontinuous phrases this id will be shared for all brackets belonging to the same phrase.
  - `lindex :: Int` - the constituent index
  - `fun :: String` - the abstract function for this bracket
  - `children :: [BracketedString]` - a list with the children of this bracket

Each element in the sequence above is either a string or an object of type `Bracket`. When it is actually a bracket then the object has the following public final variables:

- `String cat` - the syntactic category for this bracket
- `int fid` - an id which identifies this bracket in the bracketed string. If there are discontinuous phrases this id will be shared for all brackets belonging to the same phrase.
- `int lindex` - the constituent index
- `String fun` - the abstract function for this bracket
- `Object[] children` - a list with the children of this bracket

Each element in the sequence above is either a string or an object of type `Bracket`. When it is actually a bracket then the object has the following public final variables:

- `String cat` - the syntactic category for this bracket
- `int fid` - an id which identifies this bracket in the bracketed string. If there are discontinuous phrases this id will be shared for all brackets belonging to the same phrase.
- `int lindex` - the constituent index
- `String fun` - the abstract function for this bracket
- `Object[] children` - a list with the children of this bracket

The linearization works even if there are functions in the tree that doesn't have linearization definitions. In that case you will just see the name of the function in the generated string. It is sometimes helpful to be able to see whether a function is linearizable or not. This can be done in this way:

    >>> print(eng.hasLinearization("apple_N"))
    True

    Prelude PGF2> print (hasLinearization eng "apple_N")
    True

    System.out.println(eng.hasLinearization("apple_N"));
    true

    Console.WriteLine(eng.HasLinearization("apple_N"));  //// TODO
    true

## Analysing and Constructing Expressions

An already constructed tree can be analyzed and transformed in the host application. For example you can deconstruct a tree into a function name and a list of arguments:

    >>> e.unpack()
    ('AdjCN', [<pgf.Expr object at 0x7f7df6db78c8>, <pgf.Expr object at 0x7f7df6db7878>])

    Prelude PGF2> unApp e
    Just ("AdjCN", [..., ...])

    ExprApplication app = e.unApp();
    System.out.println(app.getFunction());
    for (Expr arg : app.getArguments()) {
       System.out.println(arg);
    }

    ExprApplication app = e.UnApp();
    System.out.println(app.Function);
    foreach (Expr arg in app.Arguments) {
       Console.WriteLine(arg);
    }

The result from unpack can be different depending on the form of the tree. If the tree is a function application then you always get a tuple of a function name and a list of arguments. If instead the tree is just a literal string then the return value is the actual literal. For example the result from:

    >>> pgf.readExpr('"literal"').unpack()
    'literal'

The result from `unApp` is `Just` if the expression is an application and `Nothing` in all other cases. Similarly, if the tree is a literal string then the return value from `unStr` will be `Just` with the actual literal. For example the result from:

    Prelude PGF2> readExpr "\"literal\"" >>= unStr
    "literal"

The result from `unApp` is not `null` if the expression is an application, and `null` in all other cases. Similarly, if the tree is a literal string then the return value from `unStr` will not be `null` with the actual literal. For example the output from:

    Expr elit = Expr.readExpr("\"literal\"");
    System.out.println(elit.unStr());

The result from `UnApp` is not `null` if the expression is an application, and `null` in all other cases. Similarly, if the tree is a literal string then the return value from `UnStr` will not be `null` with the actual literal. For example the output from:

    Expr elit = Expr.ReadExpr("\"literal\"");
    Console.WriteLine(elit.UnStr());

is just the string "literal". Situations like this can be detected in Python by checking the type of the result from `unpack`. It is also possible to get an integer or a floating point number for the other possible literal types in GF. There are also the functions `unAbs`, `unInt`, `unFloat` and `unMeta` for all other possible cases. There are also the methods `unAbs`, `unInt`, `unFloat` and `unMeta` for all other possible cases. There are also the methods `UnAbs`, `UnInt`, `UnFloat` and `UnMeta` for all other possible cases. Constructing new trees is also easy. You can either use `readExpr` to read trees from strings, or you can construct new trees from existing pieces. This is possible by using the constructor for `pgf.Expr`:

    >>> quant = pgf.readExpr("DetQuant IndefArt NumSg")
    >>> e2 = pgf.Expr("DetCN", [quant, e])
    >>> print(e2)
    DetCN (DetQuant IndefArt NumSg) (AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N))

using the functions `mkApp`, `mkStr`, `mkInt`, `mkFloat` and `mkMeta`:

    Prelude PGF2> let Just quant = readExpr "DetQuant IndefArt NumSg"
    Prelude PGF2> let e2 = mkApp "DetCN" [quant, e]
    Prelude PGF2> print e2
    DetCN (DetQuant IndefArt NumSg) (AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N))

using the constructor for `Expr`:

    Expr quant = Expr.readExpr("DetQuant IndefArt NumSg");
    Expr e2 = new Expr("DetCN", new Expr[] {quant, e});
    System.out.println(e2);

using the constructor for `Expr`:

    Expr quant = Expr.ReadExpr("DetQuant IndefArt NumSg");
    Expr e2 = new Expr("DetCN", new Expr[] {quant, e});
    Console.WriteLine(e2);

## Embedded GF Grammars

If the host application needs to do a lot of expression manipulations, then it is helpful to use a higher-level API to the grammar, also known as "embedded grammars" in GF. The advantage is that you can construct and analyze expressions in a more compact way.

In Python you first have to `embed` the grammar by calling:

    >>> gr.embed("App")
    <module 'App' (built-in)>

After that whenever you need the API you should import the module:

    >>> import App

Now creating new trees is just a matter of calling ordinary Python functions:

    >>> print(App.DetCN(quant,e))
    DetCN (DetQuant IndefArt NumSg) (AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN house_N))

In order to access the API you first need to generate one boilerplate Haskell module with the compiler:

    $ gf -make -output-format=haskell App.pgf

This module will expose all functions in the abstract syntax as data type constructors together with methods for conversion from a generic expression to Haskell data and vice versa. When you need the API you can just import the module:

    Prelude PGF2> import App

Now creating new trees is just a matter of writing ordinary Haskell code:

    Prelude PGF2 App> print (gf (GDetCN (GDetQuant GIndefArt GNumSg) (GAdjCN (GPositA Gred_A) (GUseN Ghouse_N))))

The only difference is that to the name of every abstract syntax function the compiler adds a capital 'G' in order to guarantee that there are no conflicts and that all names are valid names for Haskell data constructors. Here `gf` is a function which converts from the data type representation to generic GF expressions.

The converse function `fg` converts an expression to a data type expression. This is useful for instance if you want to do pattern matching on the structure of the expression:

    visit = case fg e2 of
              GDetCN quant cn -> do putStrLn "Found DetCN"
                                    visit cn
              GAdjCN adj   cn -> do putStrLn "Found AdjCN"
                                    visit cn
              e               -> return ()

In order to access the API you first need to generate one boilerplate Java class with the compiler:

    $ gf -make -output-format=java App.pgf

This class will expose all functions in the abstract syntax as methods. Now creating new trees is just a matter of writing ordinary Java code:

    System.out.println(App.DetCN(quant, cn));

If the grammar name is too long to write it in front of every function name then you can create an instance with a shorter name:

    App a = new App();
    System.out.println(a.DetCN(quant, cn));

In C# you first have to `embed` the grammar by calling:

    dynamic g = gr.Embed()

Now creating new trees is just a matter of calling ordinary C# methods:

    Console.WriteLine(g.DetCN(quant,e))
    DetCN (DetQuant IndefArt NumSg) (AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN house_N))

Analysing expressions is also made easier by using the visitor pattern. In object oriented languages this is a clumpsy way to do what is called pattern matching in most functional languages. You need to define a class which has one method for each function in the abstract syntax that you want to handle. If the functions is called `f` then you need a method called `on_f`. The method will be called each time when the corresponding function is encountered, and its arguments will be the arguments from the original tree. If there is no matching method name then the runtime will call the method `default`. The following is an example:

    >>> class ExampleVisitor:
          def on_DetCN(self,quant,cn):
            print("Found DetCN")
            cn.visit(self)

          def on_AdjCN(self,adj,cn):
            print("Found AdjCN")
            cn.visit(self)

          def default(self,e):
            pass
    >>> e2.visit(ExampleVisitor())
    Found DetCN
    Found AdjCN

Here we call the method `visit` from the tree e2 and we give it, as parameter, an instance of class `ExampleVisitor`. `ExampleVisitor` has two methods `on_DetCN` and `on_AdjCN` which are called when the top function of the current tree is `DetCN` or `AdjCN` correspondingly. In this example we just print a message and we call `visit` recursively to go deeper into the tree.

Analysing expressions is also made easier by using the visitor pattern. In object oriented languages this is a clumpsy way to do what is called pattern matching in most functional languages. You need to define a class which has one method for each function in the abstract syntax that you want to handle. If the functions is called `f` then you need a method called `on_f`. The method will be called each time when the corresponding function is encountered, and its arguments will be the arguments from the original tree. If there is no matching method name then the runtime will call the method `defaultCase`. The following is an example:

    e2.visit(new Object() {
                public void on_DetCN(Expr quant, Expr cn) {
                    System.out.println("found DetCN");
                    cn.visit(this);
                }

                public void on_AdjCN(Expr adj, Expr cn) {
                    System.out.println("found AdjCN");
                    cn.visit(this);
                }

                public void defaultCase(Expr e) {
                    System.out.println("found "+e);
                }
            });
    Found DetCN
    Found AdjCN

Here we call the method `visit` from the tree e2 and we give it, as parameter, an instance of a class with two methods `on_DetCN` and `on_AdjCN` which are called when the top function of the current tree is `DetCN` or `AdjCN` correspondingly. In this example we just print a message and we call `visit` recursively to go deeper into the tree.

## Access the Morphological Lexicon

There are two methods that gives you direct access to the morphological lexicon. The first makes it possible to dump the full form lexicon. The following code just iterates over the lexicon and prints each word form with its possible analyses:

    >>> for entry in eng.fullFormLexicon():
    >>>    print(entry)

    Prelude PGF2> mapM_ print [(form,lemma,analysis,prob) | (form,analyses) <- fullFormLexicon eng, (lemma,analysis,prob) <- analyses]

    for (FullFormEntry entry : eng.fullFormLexicon()) {
    	for (MorphoAnalysis analysis : entry.getAnalyses()) {
    		System.out.println(entry.getForm()+" "+analysis.getProb()+" "+analysis.getLemma()+" "+analysis.getField());
    	}
    }

    foreach (FullFormEntry entry in eng.FullFormLexicon) {     //// TODO
    	foreach (MorphoAnalysis analysis in entry.Analyses) {
    		Console.WriteLine(entry.Form+" "+analysis.Prob+" "+analysis.Lemma+" "+analysis.Field);
    	}
    }

The second one implements a simple lookup. The argument is a word form and the result is a list of analyses:

    >>> print(eng.lookupMorpho("letter"))
    [('letter_1_N', 's Sg Nom', inf), ('letter_2_N', 's Sg Nom', inf)]

    Prelude PGF2> print (lookupMorpho eng "letter")
    [('letter_1_N', 's Sg Nom', inf), ('letter_2_N', 's Sg Nom', inf)]

    for (MorphoAnalysis an : eng.lookupMorpho("letter")) {
        System.out.println(an.getLemma()+", "+an.getField()+", "+an.getProb());
    }
    letter_1_N, s Sg Nom, inf
    letter_2_N, s Sg Nom, inf

    foreach (MorphoAnalysis an in eng.LookupMorpho("letter")) {   //// TODO
        Console.WriteLine(an.Lemma+", "+an.Field+", "+an.Prob);
    }
    letter_1_N, s Sg Nom, inf
    letter_2_N, s Sg Nom, inf

## Access the Abstract Syntax

There is a simple API for accessing the abstract syntax. For example, you can get a list of abstract functions:

    >>> gr.functions
    ....

    Prelude PGF2> functions gr
    ....

    List<String> funs = gr.getFunctions()
    ....

    IEnumerable<String> funs = gr.Functions;
    ....

or a list of categories:

    >>> gr.categories
    ....

    Prelude PGF2> categories gr
    ....

    List<String> cats = gr.getCategories();
    ....

    IEnumerable<String> cats = gr.Categories;
    ....

You can also access all functions with the same result category:

    >>> gr.functionsByCat("Weekday")
    ['friday_Weekday', 'monday_Weekday', 'saturday_Weekday', 'sunday_Weekday', 'thursday_Weekday', 'tuesday_Weekday', 'wednesday_Weekday']

    Prelude PGF2> functionsByCat gr "Weekday"
    ['friday_Weekday', 'monday_Weekday', 'saturday_Weekday', 'sunday_Weekday', 'thursday_Weekday', 'tuesday_Weekday', 'wednesday_Weekday']

    List<String> funsByCat = gr.getFunctionsByCat("Weekday");
    ....

    IEnumerable<String> funsByCat = gr.FunctionsByCat("Weekday");
    ....

The full type of a function can be retrieved as:

    >>> print(gr.functionType("DetCN"))
    Det -> CN -> NP

    Prelude PGF2> print (functionType gr "DetCN")
    Just (Det -> CN -> NP)

    System.out.println(gr.getFunctionType("DetCN"));
    Det -> CN -> NP

    Console.WriteLine(gr.FunctionType("DetCN"));
    Det -> CN -> NP

## Type Checking Abstract Trees

The runtime type checker can do type checking and type inference for simple types. Dependent types are still not fully implemented in the current runtime. The inference is done with method `inferExpr`:

    >>> e,ty = gr.inferExpr(e)
    >>> print(e)
    AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N)
    >>> print(ty)
    CN

    Prelude PGF2> let Right (e',ty) = inferExpr gr e
    Prelude PGF2> print e'
    AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N)
    Prelude PGF2> print ty
    CN

    TypedExpr te = gr.inferExpr(e);
    System.out.println(te.getExpr()+" : "+te.getType());
    AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N) : CN

    TypedExpr te = gr.InferExpr(e);                 //// TODO
    Console.WriteLine(te.Expr+" : "+te.Type);
    AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N) : CN

The result is a potentially updated expression and its type. In this case we always deal with simple types, which means that the new expression will be always equal to the original expression. However, this wouldn't be true when dependent types are added.

Type checking is also trivial:

    >>> e = gr.checkExpr(e,pgf.readType("CN"))
    >>> print(e)
    AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N)

    Prelude PGF2> let Just ty = readType "CN"
    Prelude PGF2> let Right e' = checkExpr gr e ty
    Prelude PGF2> print e'
    AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N)

    Expr new_e = gr.checkExpr(e,Type.readType("CN"));
    System.out.println(e)

    Expr new_e = gr.CheckExpr(e,Type.ReadType("CN"));            //// TODO
    Console.WriteLine(e)

In case of type error you will get an error:

    >>> e = gr.checkExpr(e,pgf.readType("A"))
    pgf.TypeError: The expected type of the expression AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N) is A but CN is infered

    Prelude PGF2> let Just ty = readType "A"
    Prelude PGF2> let Left msg = checkExpr gr e ty
    Prelude PGF2> putStrLn msg

    Expr e = gr.checkExpr(e,Type.readType("A"))
    TypeError: The expected type of the expression AdjCN (PositA red_A) (UseN theatre_N) is A but CN is infered

## Partial Grammar Loading

By default the whole grammar is compiled into a single file which consists of an abstract syntax together will all concrete languages. For large grammars with many languages this might be inconvinient because loading becomes slower and the grammar takes more memory. For that purpose you could split the grammar into one file for the abstract syntax and one file for every concrete syntax. This is done by using the option `-split-pgf` in the compiler:

    $ gf -make -split-pgf App12.pgf

Now you can load the grammar as usual but this time only the abstract syntax will be loaded. You can still use the `languages` property to get the list of languages and the corresponding concrete syntax objects:

    >>> gr = pgf.readPGF("App.pgf")
    >>> eng = gr.languages["AppEng"]

However, if you now try to use the concrete syntax then you will get an exception:

    >>> eng.lookupMorpho("letter")
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      File "", line 1, in
    pgf.PGFError: The concrete syntax is not loaded

Before using the concrete syntax, you need to explicitly load it:

    >>> eng.load("AppEng.pgf_c")
    >>> print(eng.lookupMorpho("letter"))
    [('letter_1_N', 's Sg Nom', inf), ('letter_2_N', 's Sg Nom', inf)]

When you don't need the language anymore then you can simply unload it:

    >>> eng.unload()

## Partial Grammar Loading

By default the whole grammar is compiled into a single file which consists of an abstract syntax together will all concrete languages. For large grammars with many languages this might be inconvinient because loading becomes slower and the grammar takes more memory. For that purpose you could split the grammar into one file for the abstract syntax and one file for every concrete syntax. This is done by using the option `-split-pgf` in the compiler:

    $ gf -make -split-pgf App12.pgf

Now you can load the grammar as usual but this time only the abstract syntax will be loaded. You can still use the `languages` property to get the list of languages and the corresponding concrete syntax objects:

    PGF gr = PGF.readPGF("App.pgf")
    Concr eng = gr.getLanguages().get("AppEng")

However, if you now try to use the concrete syntax then you will get an exception:

    eng.lookupMorpho("letter")
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      File "", line 1, in
    pgf.PGFError: The concrete syntax is not loaded

Before using the concrete syntax, you need to explicitly load it:

    eng.load("AppEng.pgf_c")
    for (MorphoAnalysis an : eng.lookupMorpho("letter")) {
        System.out.println(an.getLemma()+", "+an.getField()+", "+an.getProb());
    }
    letter_1_N, s Sg Nom, inf
    letter_2_N, s Sg Nom, inf

When you don't need the language anymore then you can simply unload it:

    eng.unload()

## GraphViz

GraphViz is used for visualizing abstract syntax trees and parse trees. In both cases the result is a GraphViz code that can be used for rendering the trees. See the examples bellow:

    >>> print(gr.graphvizAbstractTree(e))
    graph {
    n0[label = "AdjCN", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n1[label = "PositA", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n2[label = "red_A", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n1 -- n2 [style = "solid"]
    n0 -- n1 [style = "solid"]
    n3[label = "UseN", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n4[label = "theatre_N", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n3 -- n4 [style = "solid"]
    n0 -- n3 [style = "solid"]
    }

    Prelude PGF2> putStrLn (graphvizAbstractTree gr graphvizDefaults e)
    graph {
    n0[label = "AdjCN", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n1[label = "PositA", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n2[label = "red_A", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n1 -- n2 [style = "solid"]
    n0 -- n1 [style = "solid"]
    n3[label = "UseN", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n4[label = "theatre_N", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n3 -- n4 [style = "solid"]
    n0 -- n3 [style = "solid"]
    }

    System.out.println(gr.graphvizAbstractTree(e));
    graph {
    n0[label = "AdjCN", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n1[label = "PositA", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n2[label = "red_A", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n1 -- n2 [style = "solid"]
    n0 -- n1 [style = "solid"]
    n3[label = "UseN", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n4[label = "theatre_N", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n3 -- n4 [style = "solid"]
    n0 -- n3 [style = "solid"]
    }

    Console.WriteLine(gr.GraphvizAbstractTree(e));       //// TODO
    graph {
    n0[label = "AdjCN", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n1[label = "PositA", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n2[label = "red_A", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n1 -- n2 [style = "solid"]
    n0 -- n1 [style = "solid"]
    n3[label = "UseN", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n4[label = "theatre_N", style = "solid", shape = "plaintext"]
    n3 -- n4 [style = "solid"]
    n0 -- n3 [style = "solid"]
    }

    >>> print(eng.graphvizParseTree(e))
    graph {
      node[shape=plaintext]

      subgraph {rank=same;
        n4[label="CN"]
      }

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n1[label="AP"]
        n3[label="CN"]
        n1 -- n3
      }
      n4 -- n1
      n4 -- n3

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n0[label="A"]
        n2[label="N"]
        n0 -- n2
      }
      n1 -- n0
      n3 -- n2

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n100000[label="red"]
        n100001[label="theatre"]
        n100000 -- n100001
      }
      n0 -- n100000
      n2 -- n100001
    }

    Prelude PGF2> putStrLn (graphvizParseTree eng graphvizDefaults e)
    graph {
      node[shape=plaintext]

      subgraph {rank=same;
        n4[label="CN"]
      }

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n1[label="AP"]
        n3[label="CN"]
        n1 -- n3
      }
      n4 -- n1
      n4 -- n3

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n0[label="A"]
        n2[label="N"]
        n0 -- n2
      }
      n1 -- n0
      n3 -- n2

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n100000[label="red"]
        n100001[label="theatre"]
        n100000 -- n100001
      }
      n0 -- n100000
      n2 -- n100001
    }

    System.out.println(eng.graphvizParseTree(e));
    graph {
      node[shape=plaintext]

      subgraph {rank=same;
        n4[label="CN"]
      }

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n1[label="AP"]
        n3[label="CN"]
        n1 -- n3
      }
      n4 -- n1
      n4 -- n3

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n0[label="A"]
        n2[label="N"]
        n0 -- n2
      }
      n1 -- n0
      n3 -- n2

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n100000[label="red"]
        n100001[label="theatre"]
        n100000 -- n100001
      }
      n0 -- n100000
      n2 -- n100001
    }

    Console.WriteLine(eng.GraphvizParseTree(e));          //// TODO
    graph {
      node[shape=plaintext]

      subgraph {rank=same;
        n4[label="CN"]
      }

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n1[label="AP"]
        n3[label="CN"]
        n1 -- n3
      }
      n4 -- n1
      n4 -- n3

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n0[label="A"]
        n2[label="N"]
        n0 -- n2
      }
      n1 -- n0
      n3 -- n2

      subgraph {rank=same;
        edge[style=invis]
        n100000[label="red"]
        n100001[label="theatre"]
        n100000 -- n100001
      }
      n0 -- n100000
      n2 -- n100001
    }