diff --git a/doc/gf-quickstart.html b/doc/gf-quickstart.html index cd508d474..6587986ac 100644 --- a/doc/gf-quickstart.html +++ b/doc/gf-quickstart.html @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@

Aarne Ranta

-22 December 2010 (3 September, 2007) +December 2010 for GF 3.2

@@ -42,12 +42,12 @@ GF sources.

  • Translation. Try your first translation by giving the GF command 
    -  parse "this cheese is very very Italian" | tree_bank
+  parse "this cheese is very very Italian" | linearize -treebank
  • Generation. Random-generate sentences in two languages: 
    -  generate_random | l -multi
+  generate_random | linearize
  • Grammar development. Add words to the Food @@ -66,6 +66,35 @@ grammar development, go to the one of the tutorials:
  • GF Tutorial: older, more programmer-oriented
  • GF Resource Tutorial: newer, more linguist-oriented +To learn about how GF is used for easily writing grammars for 16 languages, consult the + + + + +

    Run-time grammars and web applications

    + +GF has its own "machine language", PGF (Portable Grammar Format), +which is recommended for use in applications at run time. To produce a PGF file from +the two grammars above, do +
    +  gf -make FoodIta.gf FoodEng.gf
+  wrote Food.pgf
+
    +You can use this in Haskell and Java programs, and also on web services, as shown in +here. +To build your own web application, consult the +developer wiki. + + +

    User Group

    + +You are welcome to join the User Group +to get help and discuss GF-related issues! + + + diff --git a/doc/tutorial/gf-tutorial.html b/doc/tutorial/gf-tutorial.html index 46b17b96b..3652df3a1 100644 --- a/doc/tutorial/gf-tutorial.html +++ b/doc/tutorial/gf-tutorial.html @@ -8,12 +8,264 @@

    Grammatical Framework Tutorial

    Aarne Ranta
    -December 2010 (November 2008) +December 2010 for GF 3.2
    +

    +
    +

    + + +

    +
    +

    +

    Overview

    This is a hands-on introduction to grammar writing in GF. @@ -40,6 +292,7 @@ Prerequisites:

    +

    Outline

    Lesson 1: a multilingual "Hello World" grammar. English, Finnish, Italian. @@ -66,6 +319,7 @@ and semantic definitions.

    +

    Slides

    You can chop this tutorial into a set of slides by the command @@ -89,6 +343,7 @@ upper left corner of each slide, and the links behind the "Contents" link.

    +

    Lesson 1: Getting Started with GF

    @@ -105,6 +360,7 @@ Goals:

    +

    What GF is

    We use the term GF for three different things: @@ -133,6 +389,7 @@ using the GF system.

    +

    GF grammars and language processing tasks

    A GF program is called a grammar. @@ -160,6 +417,7 @@ In general, a GF grammar is multilingual:

    +

    Getting the GF system

    Open-source free software, downloaded via the GF Homepage: @@ -188,6 +446,7 @@ instructions in the Developers Guide.

    +

    Running the GF system

    Type gf in the Unix (or Cygwin) shell: @@ -220,6 +479,7 @@ follow them.

    +

    A "Hello World" grammar

    Like most programming language tutorials, we start with a @@ -237,6 +497,7 @@ Extra features:

    +

    The program: abstract syntax and concrete syntaxes

    A GF program, in general, is a multilingual grammar. Its main parts @@ -356,6 +617,7 @@ Finnish and an Italian concrete syntaxes:

    +

    Using grammars in the GF system

    In order to compile the grammar in GF, @@ -462,6 +724,7 @@ Linearization is by default to all available languages.

    +

    Exercises on the Hello World grammar

    1. Test the parsing and translation examples shown above, as well as @@ -491,6 +754,7 @@ of a variable. Inspect the error messages generated by GF.

      +

      Using grammars from outside GF

      You can use the gf program in a Unix pipe. @@ -516,6 +780,7 @@ You can also write a script, a file containing the lines

      +

      GF scripts

      If we name this script hello.gfs, we can do @@ -541,6 +806,7 @@ translation to the output.

      +

      What else can be done with the grammar

      Some more functions that will be covered: @@ -559,6 +825,7 @@ Some more functions that will be covered:

      +

      Embedded grammar applications

      Application programs, using techniques from Lesson 7: @@ -580,6 +847,7 @@ Application programs, using techniques from Lesson 7:

      +

      Lesson 2: Designing a grammar for complex phrases

      @@ -596,6 +864,7 @@ Goals:

      +

      The abstract syntax Food

      Phrases usable for speaking about food: @@ -643,6 +912,7 @@ Example Phrase

      +

      The concrete syntax FoodEng

           concrete FoodEng of Food = {
@@ -690,6 +960,7 @@ Parse in other categories setting the cat flag:
 
      
 
 
      
+
 
      Exercises on the Food grammar
      
 
        
 
      1. Extend the Food grammar by ten new food kinds and
@@ -706,7 +977,9 @@ the prefix can occur at most once.
 
        
 
 
        
+
 
        Commands for testing grammars
        
+
 
        Generating trees and strings
        
 
        
 Random generation (generate_random = gr): build
@@ -768,6 +1041,7 @@ What options a command has can be seen by the help = h command:
 
        
 
 
        
+
 
        Exercises on generation
        
 
          
 
        1. If the command gt generated all
@@ -781,6 +1055,7 @@ use the Unix word count command wc to count lines.
 
          
 
 
          
+
 
          More on pipes: tracing
          
 
          
 Put the tracing option -tr to each command whose output you
@@ -805,6 +1080,7 @@ strings, and try out the ambiguity test.
 
          
 
 
          
+
 
          Writing and reading files
          
 
          
 To save the outputs into a file, pipe it to the write_file = wf command,
@@ -829,6 +1105,7 @@ of grammars - the most systematic way to do this is by
 
          
 
 
          
+
 
          Visualizing trees
          
 
          
 Parentheses give a linear representation of trees,
@@ -867,10 +1144,21 @@ program (from the Graphviz package).
 
               % dot -Tpng _grph.dot > mytree.png
 
          
+
          
+You can also visualize parse trees, which show categories and words instead of
+function symbols. The command is visualize_parse = vp:
+
          
+
          +    > parse "this delicious cheese is very Italian" | visualize_parse
+
          
 
          
 
          
+
+
          
+
          
 
 
          
+
 
          System commands
          
 
          
 You can give a system command without leaving GF:
@@ -882,10 +1170,10 @@ You can give a system command without leaving GF:

      A system command may also receive its argument from -a GF pipes. It then has the name sp = system_pipe: +a GF pipes. It then uses the symbol ?: 

      -    > generate_trees -depth=4 | sp -command="wc -l"
+    > generate_trees -depth=4 | ? wc -l

      This command example returns the number of generated trees. @@ -899,6 +1187,7 @@ a system pipe from a GF command into a Unix command.

      +

      An Italian concrete syntax

      @@ -953,6 +1242,7 @@ which are introduced in Lesson 3.)

      +

      Exercises on multilinguality

      1. Write a concrete syntax of Food for some other language. @@ -970,6 +1260,7 @@ after having worked out Lesson 3.

        +

        Free variation

        Semantically indistinguishable ways of expressing a thing. @@ -1017,7 +1308,9 @@ a variant list must be of the same type.

        +

        More application of multilingual grammars

        +

        Multilingual treebanks

        @@ -1041,6 +1334,7 @@ linearizations in different languages:

        +

        Translation quiz

        translation_quiz = tq: @@ -1072,7 +1366,9 @@ answer given in another language.

        +

        Context-free grammars and GF

        +

        The "cf" grammar format

        The grammar FoodEng can be written in a BNF format as follows: @@ -1106,6 +1402,7 @@ The compiler creates separate abstract and concrete modules internally.

        +

        Restrictions of context-free grammars

        Separating concrete and abstract syntax allows @@ -1124,6 +1421,7 @@ copy language {x x | x <- (a|b)*} in GF.

        +

        Modules and files

        GF uses suffixes to recognize different file formats: @@ -1169,7 +1467,9 @@ a second time? Try this in different situations:

        +

        Using operations and resource modules

        +

        Operation definitions

        The golden rule of functional programmin: @@ -1231,6 +1531,7 @@ sugar for abstraction:

        +

        The ``resource`` module type

        The resource module type is used to package @@ -1249,6 +1550,7 @@ The resource module type is used to package

        +

        Opening a resource

        Any number of resource modules can be @@ -1281,6 +1583,7 @@ Any number of resource modules can be

        +

        Partial application

        @@ -1318,6 +1621,7 @@ such that it allows you to write

        +

        Testing resource modules

        Import with the flag -retain, @@ -1336,10 +1640,12 @@ Compute the value with compute_concrete = cc,

        +

        Grammar architecture

        +

        Extending a grammar

        A new module can extend an old one: @@ -1395,6 +1701,7 @@ possible to build resource hierarchies.

        +

        Multiple inheritance

        Extend several grammars at the same time: @@ -1428,6 +1735,7 @@ where

        +

        Lesson 3: Grammars with parameters

        @@ -1456,6 +1764,7 @@ could be left to library implementors.

        +

        The problem: words have to be inflected

        Plural forms are needed in things like @@ -1488,6 +1797,7 @@ adjectives, and verbs can have in some languages that you know.

        +

        Parameters and tables

        We define the parameter type of number in English by @@ -1598,6 +1908,7 @@ module, which you can test by using the command compute_concrete.

        +

        Inflection tables and paradigms

        A morphological paradigm is a formula telling how a class of @@ -1649,6 +1960,7 @@ uses a wild card pattern _.

        +

        Exercises on morphology

        1. Identify cases in which the regNoun paradigm does not @@ -1661,6 +1973,7 @@ considered in earlier exercises.

          +

          Using parameters in concrete syntax

          Purpose: a more radical @@ -1685,6 +1998,7 @@ This will force us to deal with gender-

          +

          Agreement

          In English, the phrase-forming rule @@ -1726,6 +2040,7 @@ Now we can write

          +

          Determiners

          How does an Item subject receive its number? The rules @@ -1795,6 +2110,7 @@ In a more lexicalized grammar, determiners would be a category:

          +

          Parametric vs. inherent features

          Kinds have number as a parametric feature: both singular and plural @@ -1862,6 +2178,7 @@ Notice

          +

          An English concrete syntax for Foods with parameters

          We use some string operations from the library Prelude are used. @@ -1926,6 +2243,7 @@ We use some string operations from the library Prelude are used.

          +

          More on inflection paradigms

          @@ -1939,6 +2257,7 @@ add words to a lexicon.

          +

          Worst-case functions

          We perform data abstraction from the type @@ -2028,6 +2347,7 @@ parameters.

          +

          Smart paradigms

          The regular dog-dogs paradigm has @@ -2094,6 +2414,7 @@ the suffix "oo" prevents bamboo from matching the suffix

          +

          Exercises on regular patterns

          1. The same rules that form plural nouns in English also @@ -2118,6 +2439,7 @@ operation to see whether it correctly changes Arzt to

            +

            Function types with variables

            In Lesson 5, dependent function types need a notation @@ -2173,6 +2495,7 @@ looking like the expected forms:

            +

            Separating operation types and definitions

            In librarues, it is useful to group type signatures separately from @@ -2192,6 +2515,7 @@ With the interface and instance module types

            +

            Overloading of operations

            Overloading: different functions can be given the same name, as e.g. in C++. @@ -2233,6 +2557,7 @@ an overload group.

            +

            Morphological analysis and morphology quiz

            The command morpho_analyse = ma @@ -2269,6 +2594,7 @@ To create a list for later use, use the command morpho_list = ml

            +

            The Italian Foods grammar

            @@ -2406,6 +2732,7 @@ The complete set of linearization rules:

            +

            Exercises on using parameters

            1. Experiment with multilingual generation and translation in the @@ -2425,6 +2752,7 @@ now aiming for complete grammatical correctness by the use of parameters.

              +

              Discontinuous constituents

              A linearization record may contain more strings than one, and those @@ -2462,6 +2790,7 @@ but can be defined in GF by using discontinuous constituents.

              +

              Strings at compile time vs. run time

              Tokens are created in the following ways: @@ -2520,6 +2849,7 @@ This topic will be covered in here.

              +

              Supplementary constructs for concrete syntax

              Record extension and subtyping

              @@ -2581,6 +2911,7 @@ Thus

              +

              Lesson 4: Using the resource grammar library

              @@ -2597,32 +2928,38 @@ Goals:

              +

              The coverage of the library

              -The current 12 resource languages are +The current 16 resource languages (GF version 3.2, December 2010) are

              • Bulgarian
              • Catalan
              • Danish +
              • Dutch
              • English
              • Finnish
              • French
              • German
              • Italian
              • Norwegian +
              • Polish +
              • Ron, Romanian
              • Russian
              • Spanish
              • Swedish +
              • Urdu

              The first three letters (Eng etc) are used in grammar module names -(ISO 639 standard). +(ISO 639-3 standard).

              +

              The structure of the library

              @@ -2644,6 +2981,7 @@ wider coverage than with semantic grammars.

              +

              Lexical vs. phrasal rules

              A resource grammar has two kinds of categories and two kinds of rules: @@ -2671,6 +3009,7 @@ But it is a good discipline to follow.

              +

              Lexical categories

              Two kinds of lexical categories: @@ -2683,8 +3022,7 @@ Two kinds of lexical categories:

            2. structural words / function words, e.g. 
                     Conj ;     -- conjunction           e.g. "and"
-      QuantSg ;  -- singular quantifier   e.g. "this"
-      QuantPl ;  -- plural quantifier     e.g. "this"
+      Det ;      -- determiner            e.g. "this"

              @@ -2703,13 +3041,13 @@ Two kinds of lexical categories:

              +

              Lexical rules

              Closed classes: module Syntax. In the Foods grammar, we need 

              -    this_QuantSg, that_QuantSg : QuantSg ; 
-    these_QuantPl, those_QuantPl : QuantPl ; 
+    this_Det, that_Det, these_Det, those_Det : Det ; 
     very_AdA  : AdA ;

              @@ -2735,6 +3073,7 @@ where we use mkN from ParadigmsEng:

              +

              Resource lexicon

              Alternative concrete syntax for @@ -2765,6 +3104,7 @@ Advantages:

              +

              Phrasal categories

              In Foods, we need just four phrasal categories: @@ -2785,14 +3125,14 @@ Common nouns are made into noun phrases by adding determiners.

              +

              Syntactic combinations

              We need the following combinations: 

                   mkCl : NP -> AP -> Cl ;      -- e.g. "this pizza is very warm"
-    mkNP : QuantSg -> CN -> NP ; -- e.g. "this pizza" 
-    mkNP : QuantPl -> CN -> NP ; -- e.g. "these pizzas"
+    mkNP : Det -> CN -> NP ;     -- e.g. "this pizza" 
     mkCN : AP -> CN -> CN ;      -- e.g. "warm pizza"
     mkAP : AdA -> AP -> AP ;     -- e.g. "very warm"
              @@ -2813,6 +3153,7 @@ Heavy overloading: the current library

              +

              Example syntactic combination

              The sentence @@ -2823,7 +3164,7 @@ can be built as follows: 

                   mkCl 
-      (mkNP these_QuantPl 
+      (mkNP these_Det 
          (mkCN (mkAP very_AdA (mkAP warm_A)) (mkCN pizza_CN)))
       (mkAP italian_AP)
              @@ -2838,6 +3179,7 @@ this syntactic tree gives the value of linearizing the semantic tree

              +

              The resource API

              Language-specific and language-independent parts - roughly, @@ -2854,11 +3196,12 @@ Language-specific and language-independent parts - roughly, Full API documentation on-line: the resource synopsis,

              -grammaticalframework.org/lib/resource/doc/synopsis.html +grammaticalframework.org/lib/doc/synopsis.html

              +

              A miniature resource API: categories

              @@ -2892,16 +3235,11 @@ Full API documentation on-line: the resource synopsis, - - + + - - - - - @@ -2916,6 +3254,7 @@ Full API documentation on-line: the resource synopsis,

              +

              A miniature resource API: rules

              very
              QuantSgsingular quantifierDetdeterminer these
              QuantPlplural quantifierthis
              A one-place adjective warm
              @@ -2930,12 +3269,7 @@ Full API documentation on-line: the resource synopsis, - - - - - - + @@ -2963,6 +3297,7 @@ Full API documentation on-line: the resource synopsis,

              +

              A miniature resource API: structural words

              mkNPQuantSg -> CN -> NPthis old man
              mkNPQuantPl -> CN -> NPDet -> CN -> NP these old man
              @@ -2971,23 +3306,23 @@ Full API documentation on-line: the resource synopsis, - - + + - - + + - - + + - - + + @@ -3000,6 +3335,7 @@ Full API documentation on-line: the resource synopsis,

              +

              A miniature resource API: paradigms

              From ParadigmsEng: @@ -3044,6 +3380,7 @@ From ParadigmsIta:

              +

              A miniature resource API: more paradigms

              From ParadigmsGer: @@ -3108,6 +3445,7 @@ From ParadigmsFin:

              +

              Exercises

              1. Try out the morphological paradigms in different languages. Do @@ -3122,6 +3460,7 @@ as follows:

              +

              Example: English

              @@ -3155,6 +3494,7 @@ Thus the beginning of the module is

              +

              English example: linearization types and combination rules

              As linearization types, we use clauses for Phrase, noun phrases @@ -3173,10 +3513,10 @@ Now the combination rules we need almost write themselves automatically: 

                   lin
       Is item quality = mkCl item quality ;
-      This kind = mkNP this_QuantSg kind ;
-      That kind = mkNP that_QuantSg kind ;
-      These kind = mkNP these_QuantPl kind ;
-      Those kind = mkNP those_QuantPl kind ;
+      This kind = mkNP this_Det kind ;
+      That kind = mkNP that_Det kind ;
+      These kind = mkNP these_Det kind ;
+      Those kind = mkNP those_Det kind ;
       QKind quality kind = mkCN quality kind ;
       Very quality = mkAP very_AdA quality ;
              @@ -3184,6 +3524,7 @@ Now the combination rules we need almost write themselves automatically:

              +

              English example: lexical rules

              We use resource paradigms and lexical insertion rules. @@ -3209,6 +3550,7 @@ The two-place noun paradigm is needed only once, for

              +

              English example: exercises

              1. Compile the grammar FoodsEng and generate @@ -3223,10 +3565,12 @@ grammars presented earlier in this tutorial.

              +

              Functor implementation of multilingual grammars

              +

              New language by copy and paste

              If you write a concrete syntax of Foods for some other @@ -3257,6 +3601,7 @@ Can we avoid this programming by copy-and-paste?

              +

              Functors: functions on the module level

              Functors familiar from the functional programming languages ML and OCaml, @@ -3301,6 +3646,7 @@ we can write a functor instantiation,

              +

              Code for the Foods functor

                   --# -path=.:../foods
@@ -3313,10 +3659,10 @@ we can write a functor instantiation,
       Quality = AP ;
     lin
       Is item quality = mkCl item quality ;
-      This kind = mkNP this_QuantSg kind ;
-      That kind = mkNP that_QuantSg kind ;
-      These kind = mkNP these_QuantPl kind ;
-      Those kind = mkNP those_QuantPl kind ;
+      This kind = mkNP this_Det kind ;
+      That kind = mkNP that_Det kind ;
+      These kind = mkNP these_Det kind ;
+      Those kind = mkNP those_Det kind ;
       QKind quality kind = mkCN quality kind ;
       Very quality = mkAP very_AdA quality ;
   
@@ -3336,6 +3682,7 @@ we can write a functor instantiation,
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Code for the LexFoods interface
              
 
              
 
@@ -3359,6 +3706,7 @@ we can write a functor instantiation,
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Code for a German instance of the lexicon
              
 
                   instance LexFoodsGer of LexFoods = open SyntaxGer, ParadigmsGer in {
@@ -3379,6 +3727,7 @@ we can write a functor instantiation,
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Code for a German functor instantiation
              
 
                   --# -path=.:../foods:present
@@ -3391,6 +3740,7 @@ we can write a functor instantiation,
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Adding languages to a functor implementation
              
 
              
 Just two modules are needed:
@@ -3416,6 +3766,7 @@ language:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Example: adding Finnish
              
 
              
 Lexicon instance
@@ -3449,6 +3800,7 @@ Functor instantiation
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              A design pattern
              
 
              
 This can be seen as a design pattern for multilingual grammars:
@@ -3471,6 +3823,7 @@ Of the hand-written modules, only LexDomainL is language-dependent.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Functors: exercises
              
 
              
 1. Compile and test FoodsGer.
@@ -3511,7 +3864,9 @@ The implementation goes in the following phases:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Restricted inheritance
              
+
 
              A problem with functors
              
 
              
 Problem: a functor only works when all languages use the resource Syntax 
@@ -3541,6 +3896,7 @@ Problem with this solution:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Restricted inheritance: include or exclude
              
 
              
 A module may inherit just a selection of names.
@@ -3561,6 +3917,7 @@ A concrete syntax of Foodmarket must make the analogous restriction
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              The functor problem solved
              
 
              
 The English instantiation inherits the functor 
@@ -3582,6 +3939,7 @@ is defined in the body instead:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Grammar reuse
              
 
              
 Abstract syntax modules can be used as interfaces, 
@@ -3603,6 +3961,7 @@ The following correspondencies are then applied:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Library exercises
              
 
              
 1. Find resource grammar terms for the following
@@ -3627,6 +3986,7 @@ Then translate the phrases to other languages.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Tenses
              
 
              
 
@@ -3718,6 +4078,7 @@ tenses and moods, e.g. the Romance languages.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Lesson 5: Refining semantics in abstract syntax
              
 
              
 
@@ -3745,6 +4106,7 @@ GF = logical framework + concrete syntax.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Dependent types
              
 
              
 
@@ -3772,6 +4134,7 @@ defines voice commands for household appliances.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              A dependent type system
              
 
              
 Ontology: 
@@ -3800,6 +4163,7 @@ Abstract syntax formalizing this:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Examples of devices and actions
              
 
              
 Assume the kinds light and fan,
@@ -3832,6 +4196,7 @@ but we cannot form the trees
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Linearization and parsing with dependent types
              
 
              
 Concrete syntax does not know if a category is a dependent type. 
@@ -3874,6 +4239,7 @@ to mark incomplete parts of trees in the syntax editor.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Solving metavariables
              
 
              
 Use the command put_tree = pt with the option -typecheck:
@@ -3896,6 +4262,7 @@ is shown and no tree is returned:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Polymorphism
              
 
              
 
@@ -3928,6 +4295,7 @@ to express Haskell-type library functions:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Dependent types: exercises
              
 
              
 1. Write an abstract syntax module with above contents
@@ -3944,6 +4312,7 @@ and an appropriate English concrete syntax. Try to parse the commands
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Proof objects
              
 
              
 Curry-Howard isomorphism = propositions as types principle:
@@ -3988,6 +4357,7 @@ Example: the fact that 2 is less that 4 has the proof object
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Proof-carrying documents
              
 
              
 Idea: to be semantically well-formed, the abstract syntax of a document 
@@ -4031,6 +4401,7 @@ A legal connection is formed by the function
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Restricted polymorphism
              
 
              
 Above, all Actions were either of
@@ -4055,6 +4426,7 @@ The notion of class uses the Curry-Howard isomorphism as follows:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Example: classes for switching and dimming
              
 
              
 We modify the smart house grammar:
@@ -4077,6 +4449,7 @@ Classes for new actions can be added incrementally.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Variable bindings
              
 
              
 
@@ -4110,6 +4483,7 @@ Examples from informal mathematical language:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Higher-order abstract syntax
              
 
              
 Abstract syntax can use functions as arguments:
@@ -4147,6 +4521,7 @@ expressed using higher-order syntactic constructors.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Higher-order abstract syntax: linearization
              
 
              
 HOAS has proved to be useful in the semantics and computer implementation of
@@ -4180,6 +4555,7 @@ If there are more bindings, we add $1, $2, etc.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Eta expansion
              
 
              
 To make sense of linearization, syntax trees must be
@@ -4228,6 +4604,7 @@ The linearization of the variable x is,
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Parsing variable bindings
              
 
              
 GF can treat any one-word string as a variable symbol.
@@ -4247,6 +4624,7 @@ Variables must be bound if they are used:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Exercises on variable bindings
              
 
              
 1. Write an abstract syntax of the whole
@@ -4265,6 +4643,7 @@ guarantee non-ambiguity.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Semantic definitions
              
 
              
 
@@ -4303,6 +4682,7 @@ The key word is def:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Computing a tree
              
 
              
 Computation: follow a chain of definition until no definition
@@ -4328,6 +4708,7 @@ Computation in GF is performed with the put_term command and the
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Definitional equality
              
 
              
 Two trees are definitionally equal if they compute into the same tree.
@@ -4355,6 +4736,7 @@ so that an object of one also is an object of the other.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Judgement forms for constructors
              
 
              
 The judgement form data tells that a category has 
@@ -4384,6 +4766,7 @@ marked as data will be treated as variables.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Exercises on semantic definitions
              
 
              
 1. Implement an interpreter of a small functional programming
@@ -4399,6 +4782,7 @@ Type checking can be invoked with put_term -transform=solve.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Lesson 6: Grammars of formal languages
              
 
              
 
@@ -4415,6 +4799,7 @@ Goals:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Arithmetic expressions
              
 
              
 We construct a calculator with addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
@@ -4445,6 +4830,7 @@ grammars are not allowed to declare functions with Int as value typ
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Concrete syntax: a simple approach
              
 
              
 We begin with a
@@ -4486,6 +4872,7 @@ First problems:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Lexing and unlexing
              
 
              
 
@@ -4538,6 +4925,7 @@ In linearization, we use a corresponding unlexer:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Most common lexers and unlexers
              In English
              this_QuantSgQuantSgthis_DetDet this
              that_QuantSgQuantSgthat_DetDet that
              these_QuantPlQuantPlthese_DetDet this
              those_QuantPlQuantPlthose_DetDet that
              @@ -4575,6 +4963,7 @@ In linearization, we use a corresponding unlexer:

              +

              Precedence and fixity

              Arithmetic expressions should be unambiguous. If we write @@ -4613,6 +5002,7 @@ The usual precedence rules:

              +

              Precedence as a parameter

              Precedence can be made into an inherent feature of expressions: @@ -4657,6 +5047,7 @@ This idea is encoded in the operation

              +

              Fixities

              We can define left-associative infix expressions: @@ -4697,6 +5088,7 @@ Now we can write the whole concrete syntax of Calculator compactly:

              +

              Exercises on precedence

              1. Define non-associative and right-associative infix operations @@ -4710,6 +5102,7 @@ Test parsing with and without a pipe to pt -transform=compute.

              +

              Code generation as linearization

              Translate arithmetic (infix) to JVM (postfix): @@ -4739,6 +5132,7 @@ Just give linearization rules for JVM:

              +

              Programs with variables

              A straight code programming language, with @@ -4787,6 +5181,7 @@ of the extension is Prog.

              +

              Exercises on code generation

              1. Define a C-like concrete syntax of the straight-code language. @@ -4827,6 +5222,7 @@ point literals as arguments.

              +

              Lesson 7: Embedded grammars

              @@ -4844,6 +5240,7 @@ Goals:

              +

              Functionalities of an embedded grammar format

              GF grammars can be used as parts of programs written in other programming @@ -4860,16 +5257,17 @@ This facility is based on several components:

              +

              The portable grammar format

              The portable format is called PGF, "Portable Grammar Format".

              -This format is produced by the GF batch compiler gf, -executable from the operative system shell: +This format is produced by using GF as batch compiler, with the option -make, +from the operative system shell: 

              -    % gf --make SOURCE.gf
+    % gf -make SOURCE.gf

              PGF is the recommended format in @@ -4887,6 +5285,7 @@ general-purpose programming (or bytecode in Java).

              +

              Haskell: the EmbedAPI module

              The Haskell API contains (among other things) the following types and functions: @@ -4915,6 +5314,7 @@ It is available as a part of the GF distribution, in the file

              +

              First application: a translator

              Let us first build a stand-alone translator, which can translate @@ -4941,7 +5341,7 @@ in any multilingual grammar between any languages in the grammar. To run the translator, first compile it by 

              -    % ghc --make -o trans Translator.hs 
+    % ghc -make -o trans Translator.hs

              For this, you need the Haskell compiler GHC. @@ -4949,13 +5349,14 @@ For this, you need the Haskell compiler GHC

              +

              Producing PGF for the translator

              Then produce a PGF file. For instance, the Food grammar set can be compiled as follows: 

              -    % gf --make FoodEng.gf FoodIta.gf
+    % gf -make FoodEng.gf FoodIta.gf

              This produces the file Food.pgf (its name comes from the abstract syntax). @@ -4976,6 +5377,7 @@ The result is given in all languages except the input language.

              +

              A translator loop

              To avoid starting the translator over and over again: @@ -4997,6 +5399,7 @@ is quit.

              +

              A question-answer system

              @@ -5041,6 +5444,7 @@ To reply in the same language as the question:

              +

              Abstract syntax of the query system

              Input: abstract syntax judgements @@ -5067,6 +5471,7 @@ Input: abstract syntax judgements

              +

              Exporting GF datatypes to Haskell

              To make it easy to define a transfer function, we export the @@ -5079,7 +5484,7 @@ abstract syntax to a system of Haskell datatypes: It is also possible to produce the Haskell file together with PGF, by 

              -    % gf --make --output-format=haskell QueryEng.gf
+    % gf -make --output-format=haskell QueryEng.gf

              The result is a file named Query.hs, containing a @@ -5117,6 +5522,7 @@ The Haskell module name is the same as the abstract syntax name.

              +

              The question-answer function

              Haskell's type checker guarantees that the functions are well-typed also with @@ -5140,6 +5546,7 @@ respect to GF.

              +

              Converting between Haskell and GF trees

              The generated Haskell module also contains @@ -5172,6 +5579,7 @@ For the programmer, it is enougo to know:

              +

              Putting it all together: the transfer definition

                 module TransferDef where
@@ -5205,6 +5613,7 @@ For the programmer, it is enougo to know:
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Putting it all together: the Main module
              
 
              
 Here is the complete code in the Haskell file TransferLoop.hs.
@@ -5236,13 +5645,14 @@ Here is the complete code in the Haskell file TransferLoop.hs.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Putting it all together: the Makefile
              
 
              
 To automate the production of the system, we write a Makefile as follows:
 
              
 
                 all:
-          gf --make --output-format=haskell QueryEng
+          gf -make --output-format=haskell QueryEng
           ghc --make -o ./math TransferLoop.hs
           strip math
 
              
@@ -5273,6 +5683,7 @@ Just to summarize, the source of the application consists of the following files
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Web server applications
              
 
              
 PGF files can be used in web servers, for which there is a Haskell library included
@@ -5291,6 +5702,7 @@ is an example of its application to the Foods grammars.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              JavaScript applications
              
 
              
 JavaScript is a programming language that has interpreters built in in most
@@ -5304,13 +5716,14 @@ program compiled from GF grammars as run on an iPhone.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Compiling to JavaScript
              
 
              
 JavaScript is one of the output formats of the GF batch compiler. Thus the following
 command generates a JavaScript file from two Food grammars.
 
              
 
              -    % gf --make --output-format=js FoodEng.gf FoodIta.gf
+    % gf -make --output-format=js FoodEng.gf FoodIta.gf
 
              
 
              
 The name of the generated file is Food.js, derived from the top-most abstract
@@ -5319,6 +5732,7 @@ syntax name. This file contains the multilingual grammar as a JavaScript object.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Using the JavaScript grammar
              
 
              
 To perform parsing and linearization, the run-time library
@@ -5344,6 +5758,7 @@ With these changes, the translator works for any multilingual grammar.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              Language models for speech recognition
              
 
              
 The standard way of using GF in speech recognition is by building
@@ -5361,7 +5776,7 @@ GSL is produced from GF by running gf with the flag
 Example: GSL  generated from FoodsEng.gf.
 
              
 
              -    % gf --make --output-format=gsl FoodsEng.gf
+    % gf -make --output-format=gsl FoodsEng.gf
     % more FoodsEng.gsl
   
     ;GSL2.0
@@ -5390,6 +5805,7 @@ Example: GSL  generated from FoodsEng.gf.
 
              
 
 
              
+
 
              More speech recognition grammar formats
              
 
              
 Other formats available via the --output-format flag include:
@@ -5438,5 +5854,5 @@ All currently available formats can be seen with gf --help.
 
              
 
 
-
+
 
diff --git a/doc/tutorial/gf-tutorial.t2t b/doc/tutorial/gf-tutorial.t2t
index 8ae053a99..d0a298e4c 100644
--- a/doc/tutorial/gf-tutorial.t2t
+++ b/doc/tutorial/gf-tutorial.t2t
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 Grammatical Framework Tutorial
 Aarne Ranta
-December 2010 (November 2008)
+December 2010 for GF 3.2 
 
 
 % NOTE: this is a txt2tags file.
@@ -64,6 +64,7 @@ December 2010 (November 2008)
 
 %!postproc(tex): #MYTREE "input{mytree}"
 %!preproc(html): #MYTREE [mytree.png]
+%!preproc(html): #MYPARSE [myparse.png]
 %!postproc(tex): #FOODMARKET "input{foodmarket}"
 %!preproc(html): #FOODMARKET [foodmarket.png]
 %!postproc(tex): #CATEGORIES "input{categories}"
@@ -1283,7 +1284,13 @@ program (from the Graphviz package).
 ```
   % dot -Tpng _grph.dot > mytree.png
 ```
+You can also visualize **parse trees**, which show categories and words instead of
+function symbols. The command is ``visualize_parse = vp``:
+``` 
+  > parse "this delicious cheese is very Italian" | visualize_parse
+```
 
+#MYPARSE
 
 #NEW
 
@@ -1296,9 +1303,9 @@ You can give a **system command** without leaving GF:
   > ! open mytree.png
 ```
 A system command may also receive its argument from
-a GF pipes. It then has the name ``sp`` = ``system_pipe``:
+a GF pipes. It then uses the symbol ``?``:
 ```
-  > generate_trees -depth=4 | sp -command="wc -l"
+  > generate_trees -depth=4 | ? wc -l
 ```
 This command example returns the number of generated trees.
 
@@ -2766,23 +2773,27 @@ Goals:
 
 ==The coverage of the library==
 
-The current 12 resource languages are
+The current 16 resource languages (GF version 3.2, December 2010) are
 - ``Bul``garian
 - ``Cat``alan
 - ``Dan``ish
+- ``Dut``ch
 - ``Eng``lish
 - ``Fin``nish
 - ``Fre``nch
 - ``Ger``man
 - ``Ita``lian
 - ``Nor``wegian
+- ``Pol``ish
+- ``Ron``, Romanian 
 - ``Rus``sian
 - ``Spa``nish
 - ``Swe``dish
+- ``Urd``u
 
 
 The first three letters (``Eng`` etc) are used in grammar module names
-(ISO 639 standard).
+(ISO 639-3 standard).
 
 
 #NEW
@@ -2832,8 +2843,7 @@ Two kinds of lexical categories:
   - structural words / function words, e.g.
 ```
     Conj ;     -- conjunction           e.g. "and"
-    QuantSg ;  -- singular quantifier   e.g. "this"
-    QuantPl ;  -- plural quantifier     e.g. "this"
+    Det ;      -- determiner            e.g. "this"
 ```
 
 - **open**:
@@ -2852,8 +2862,7 @@ Two kinds of lexical categories:
 
 Closed classes: module ``Syntax``. In the ``Foods`` grammar, we need
 ```
-  this_QuantSg, that_QuantSg : QuantSg ; 
-  these_QuantPl, those_QuantPl : QuantPl ; 
+  this_Det, that_Det, these_Det, those_Det : Det ; 
   very_AdA  : AdA ;
 ```
 Naming convention: word followed by the category (so we can
@@ -2917,8 +2926,7 @@ Common nouns are made into noun phrases by adding determiners.
 We need the following combinations:
 ```
   mkCl : NP -> AP -> Cl ;      -- e.g. "this pizza is very warm"
-  mkNP : QuantSg -> CN -> NP ; -- e.g. "this pizza" 
-  mkNP : QuantPl -> CN -> NP ; -- e.g. "these pizzas"
+  mkNP : Det -> CN -> NP ;     -- e.g. "this pizza" 
   mkCN : AP -> CN -> CN ;      -- e.g. "warm pizza"
   mkAP : AdA -> AP -> AP ;     -- e.g. "very warm" 
 ```
@@ -2944,7 +2952,7 @@ The sentence
 can be built as follows:
 ```
   mkCl 
-    (mkNP these_QuantPl 
+    (mkNP these_Det 
        (mkCN (mkAP very_AdA (mkAP warm_A)) (mkCN pizza_CN)))
     (mkAP italian_AP) 
 ```
@@ -2970,7 +2978,7 @@ Language-specific and language-independent parts - roughly,
 
 Full API documentation on-line: the **resource synopsis**,
 
-[``grammaticalframework.org/lib/resource/doc/synopsis.html`` http://grammaticalframework.org/lib/doc/synopsis.html]
+[``grammaticalframework.org/lib/doc/synopsis.html`` http://grammaticalframework.org/lib/doc/synopsis.html]
 
 
 #NEW
@@ -2983,8 +2991,7 @@ Full API documentation on-line: the **resource synopsis**,
 | ``CN`` | common noun (without determiner) | //red house// |
 | ``NP`` | noun phrase (subject or object) | //the red house// |
 | ``AdA`` | adjective-modifying adverb, | //very// |
-| ``QuantSg`` | singular quantifier | //these// |
-| ``QuantPl`` | plural quantifier | //this// |
+| ``Det`` | determiner | //these// |
 | ``A`` | one-place adjective | //warm// |
 | ``N`` | common noun | //house// |
 
@@ -2995,8 +3002,7 @@ Full API documentation on-line: the **resource synopsis**,
 
 || Function  | Type  | Example  ||
 | ``mkCl``  | ``NP -> AP -> Cl`` | //John is very old// |
-| ``mkNP``  | ``QuantSg -> CN -> NP`` | //this old man// |
-| ``mkNP``  | ``QuantPl -> CN -> NP`` | //these old man// |
+| ``mkNP``  | ``Det -> CN -> NP`` | //these old man// |
 | ``mkCN``  | ``N -> CN`` | //house// |
 | ``mkCN``  | ``AP -> CN -> CN`` | //very big blue house// |
 | ``mkAP``  | ``A -> AP`` | //old// |
@@ -3007,10 +3013,10 @@ Full API documentation on-line: the **resource synopsis**,
 ===A miniature resource API: structural words===
 
 || Function      | Type       | In English  ||
-| ``this_QuantSg`` | ``QuantSg``  | //this// |
-| ``that_QuantSg`` | ``QuantSg``  | //that// |
-| ``these_QuantPl`` | ``QuantPl``  | //this// |
-| ``those_QuantPl`` | ``QuantPl``  | //that// |
+| ``this_Det`` | ``Det``  | //this// |
+| ``that_Det`` | ``Det``  | //that// |
+| ``these_Det`` | ``Det``  | //this// |
+| ``those_Det`` | ``Det``  | //that// |
 | ``very_AdA``   | ``AdA``    | //very// |
 
 
@@ -3112,10 +3118,10 @@ Now the combination rules we need almost write themselves automatically:
 ```
   lin
     Is item quality = mkCl item quality ;
-    This kind = mkNP this_QuantSg kind ;
-    That kind = mkNP that_QuantSg kind ;
-    These kind = mkNP these_QuantPl kind ;
-    Those kind = mkNP those_QuantPl kind ;
+    This kind = mkNP this_Det kind ;
+    That kind = mkNP that_Det kind ;
+    These kind = mkNP these_Det kind ;
+    Those kind = mkNP those_Det kind ;
     QKind quality kind = mkCN quality kind ;
     Very quality = mkAP very_AdA quality ;
 ```
@@ -3234,10 +3240,10 @@ we can write a **functor instantiation**,
     Quality = AP ;
   lin
     Is item quality = mkCl item quality ;
-    This kind = mkNP this_QuantSg kind ;
-    That kind = mkNP that_QuantSg kind ;
-    These kind = mkNP these_QuantPl kind ;
-    Those kind = mkNP those_QuantPl kind ;
+    This kind = mkNP this_Det kind ;
+    That kind = mkNP that_Det kind ;
+    These kind = mkNP these_Det kind ;
+    Those kind = mkNP those_Det kind ;
     QKind quality kind = mkCN quality kind ;
     Very quality = mkAP very_AdA quality ;
 
@@ -4530,10 +4536,10 @@ This facility is based on several components:
 
 The portable format is called PGF, "Portable Grammar Format".
 
-This format is produced by the GF batch compiler ``gf``, 
-executable from the operative system shell:
+This format is produced by using GF as batch compiler, with the option ``-make``, 
+from the operative system shell:
 ```
-  % gf --make SOURCE.gf
+  % gf -make SOURCE.gf
 ```
 PGF is the recommended format in 
 which final grammar products are distributed, because they
@@ -4598,7 +4604,7 @@ translate gr s = case parseAllLang gr (startCat gr) s of
 ```
 To run the translator, first compile it by
 ```
-  % ghc --make -o trans Translator.hs 
+  % ghc -make -o trans Translator.hs 
 ```
 For this, you need the Haskell compiler [GHC http://www.haskell.org/ghc].
 
@@ -4610,7 +4616,7 @@ For this, you need the Haskell compiler [GHC http://www.haskell.org/ghc].
 Then produce a PGF file. For instance, the ``Food`` grammar set can be 
 compiled as follows:
 ```
-  % gf --make FoodEng.gf FoodIta.gf
+  % gf -make FoodEng.gf FoodIta.gf
 ```
 This produces the file ``Food.pgf`` (its name comes from the abstract syntax).
 
@@ -4718,7 +4724,7 @@ abstract syntax to a system of Haskell datatypes:
 ```
 It is also possible to produce the Haskell file together with PGF, by
 ```
-  % gf --make --output-format=haskell QueryEng.gf
+  % gf -make --output-format=haskell QueryEng.gf
 ```
 The result is a file named ``Query.hs``, containing a 
 module named ``Query``. 
@@ -4871,7 +4877,7 @@ translate tr gr s = case parseAllLang gr (startCat gr) s of
 To automate the production of the system, we write a ``Makefile`` as follows:
 ```
 all:
-        gf --make --output-format=haskell QueryEng
+        gf -make --output-format=haskell QueryEng
         ghc --make -o ./math TransferLoop.hs
         strip math
 ```
@@ -4928,7 +4934,7 @@ program compiled from GF grammars as run on an iPhone.
 JavaScript is one of the output formats of the GF batch compiler. Thus the following
 command generates a JavaScript file from two ``Food`` grammars.
 ```
-  % gf --make --output-format=js FoodEng.gf FoodIta.gf
+  % gf -make --output-format=js FoodEng.gf FoodIta.gf
 ```
 The name of the generated file is ``Food.js``, derived from the top-most abstract
 syntax name. This file contains the multilingual grammar as a JavaScript object.
@@ -4974,7 +4980,7 @@ GSL is produced from GF by running ``gf`` with the flag
 
 Example: GSL  generated from ``FoodsEng.gf``.
 ```
-  % gf --make --output-format=gsl FoodsEng.gf
+  % gf -make --output-format=gsl FoodsEng.gf
   % more FoodsEng.gsl
 
   ;GSL2.0
diff --git a/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/ExtFoodsI.gf b/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/ExtFoodsI.gf
index 586f3e42b..b59cfc5b5 100644
--- a/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/ExtFoodsI.gf
+++ b/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/ExtFoodsI.gf
@@ -35,10 +35,10 @@ incomplete concrete ExtFoodsI of ExtFoods = FoodsI ** open Syntax, LexFoods in {
     You = mkNP youPol_Pron ;
     We = mkNP we_Pron ;
 
-    GThis = mkNP this_QuantSg ;
-    GThat = mkNP that_QuantSg ;
-    GThese = mkNP these_QuantPl ;
-    GThose = mkNP those_QuantPl ;
+    GThis = mkNP this_Det ;
+    GThat = mkNP that_Det ;
+    GThese = mkNP these_Det ;
+    GThose = mkNP those_Det ;
 
     Eat = eat_V2 ;
     Drink = drink_V2 ;
diff --git a/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/FoodsEng.gf b/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/FoodsEng.gf
index 5c2158ce2..5d32f2f15 100644
--- a/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/FoodsEng.gf
+++ b/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/FoodsEng.gf
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ concrete FoodsEng of Foods = open SyntaxEng,ParadigmsEng in {
     Quality = AP ;
   lin
     Is item quality = mkCl item quality ;
-    This kind = mkNP this_Quant kind ;
-    That kind = mkNP that_Quant kind ;
-    These kind = mkNP this_Quant plNum kind ;
-    Those kind = mkNP that_Quant plNum kind ;
+    This kind = mkNP this_Det kind ;
+    That kind = mkNP that_Det kind ;
+    These kind = mkNP these_Det kind ;
+    Those kind = mkNP those_Det kind ;
     QKind quality kind = mkCN quality kind ;
     Wine = mkCN (mkN "wine") ;
     Pizza = mkCN (mkN "pizza") ;
diff --git a/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/FoodsI.gf b/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/FoodsI.gf
index 0847f9dfb..c95a17b96 100644
--- a/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/FoodsI.gf
+++ b/examples/tutorial/resource-foods/FoodsI.gf
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ incomplete concrete FoodsI of Foods = open Syntax, LexFoods in {
   lin
     Is item quality = mkUtt (mkCl item quality) ;
     Isnt item quality = mkUtt (mkS negativePol (mkCl item quality)) ;
-    This kind = mkNP this_Quant kind ;
-    That kind = mkNP that_Quant kind ;
-    These kind = mkNP this_Quant plNum kind ;
-    Those kind = mkNP that_Quant plNum kind ;
+    This kind = mkNP this_Det kind ;
+    That kind = mkNP that_Det kind ;
+    These kind = mkNP these_Det kind ;
+    Those kind = mkNP those_Det kind ;
     QKind quality kind = mkCN quality kind ;
     Very quality = mkAP very_AdA quality ;