forked from GitHub/gf-core
436 lines
16 KiB
Plaintext
436 lines
16 KiB
Plaintext
--!
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--2 Rules
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--
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-- This set of rules is minimal, in the sense of defining the simplest combinations
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-- of categories and not having redundant rules.
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-- When the resource grammar is used as a library, it will often be useful to
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-- access it through an intermediate library that defines more rules as
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-- 'macros' for combinations of the ones below.
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abstract Shallow = {
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--1 Abstract Syntax Categories for Multilingual Resource Grammar
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--
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-- Aarne Ranta 2002 -- 2004
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--
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-- Although concrete syntax differs a lot between different languages,
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-- many structures can be treated as common, on the level
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-- of abstraction that GF provides.
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-- What we will present in the following is a linguistically oriented abstract
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-- syntax that has been successfully defined for the following languages:
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--
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--* $Eng$lish
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--* $Fin$nish
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--* $Fre$nch
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--* $Ger$man
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--* $Ita$lian
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--* $Rus$sian
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--* $Swe$dish
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--
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-- The three-letter prefixes are used in file names all over the resource
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-- grammar library; we refer to them commonly as $X$ below.
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--!
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-- The grammar has been applied to define language
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-- fragments on technical or near-to-technical domains: database queries,
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-- video recorder dialogue systems, software specifications, and a
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-- health-related phrase book. Each new application helped to identify some
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-- missing structures in the resource and suggested some additions, but the
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-- number of required additions was usually small.
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--
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-- To use the resource in applications, you need the following
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-- $cat$ and $fun$ rules in $oper$ form, completed by taking the
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-- $lincat$ and $lin$ judgements of a particular language. This is done
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-- by using, instead of this module, the $reuse$ module which has the name
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-- $ResourceX$. It is located in the subdirectory
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-- $lib/resource/lang$ where $lang$ is the full name of the language.
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--!
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--2 Categories
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--
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-- The categories of this resource grammar are mostly 'standard' categories
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-- of linguistics. Their is no claim that they correspond to semantic categories
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-- definable in type theory: to define such correspondences is the business
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-- of applications grammars. In general, the correspondence between linguistic
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-- and semantic categories is many-to-many.
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--
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-- Categories that may look special are $A2$, $N2$, and $V2$. They are all
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-- instances of endowing another category with a complement, which can be either
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-- a direct object (whose case may vary) or a prepositional phrase. Prepositional
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-- phrases that are not complements belong to the category
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-- $Adv$ of adverbs.
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--
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-- In each group below, some categories are *lexical* in the sense of only
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-- containing atomic elements. These elements are not necessarily expressed by
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-- one word in all languages; the essential thing is that they have no
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-- constituents. Thus they have no productions in this part of the
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-- resource grammar. The $ParadigmsX$ grammars provide ways of defining
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-- lexical elements.
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--
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-- Lexical categories are listed before other categories
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-- in each group and divided by an empty line.
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--!
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--3 Nouns and noun phrases
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--
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cat
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N ; -- simple common noun, e.g. "car"
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CN ; -- common noun phrase, e.g. "red car", "car that John owns"
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N2 ; -- function word, e.g. "mother (of)"
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N3 ; -- two-place function, e.g. "flight (from) (to)"
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PN ; -- proper name, e.g. "John", "New York"
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NP ; -- noun phrase, e.g. "John", "all cars", "you"
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Det ; -- determiner, e.g. "every", "all"
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Num ; -- numeral, e.g. "three", "879"
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--!
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--3 Adjectives and adjectival phrases
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--
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A ; -- one-place adjective, e.g. "even"
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A2 ; -- two-place adjective, e.g. "divisible (by)"
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ADeg ; -- degree adjective, e.g. "big/bigger/biggest"
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AP ; -- adjective phrase, e.g. "divisible by two", "bigger than John"
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-- The difference between $A$ and $ADeg$ is that the former has no
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-- comparison forms.
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--!
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--3 Verbs and verb phrases
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--
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V ; -- one-place verb, e.g. "walk"
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V2 ; -- two-place verb, e.g. "love", "wait (for)", "switch on"
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V3 ; -- three-place verb, e.g. "give", "prefer (stg) (to stg)"
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VS ; -- sentence-compl. verb, e.g. "say", "prove"
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VV ; -- verb-compl. verb, e.g. "can", "want"
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VP ; -- verb phrase, e.g. "switch the light on"
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VPI ; -- infinitive verb phrase e.g. "switch the light on", "not have run"
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--!
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--3 Adverbs and prepositions/cases
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--
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Adv ; -- sentence adverb e.g. "now", "in the house"
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AdV ; -- verb adverb e.g. "always"
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AdA ; -- ad-adjective e.g. "very"
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AdC ; -- conjoining adverb e.g. "therefore", "otherwise"
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PP ; -- prepositional phrase e.g. "in London"
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Prep ; -- pre/postposition, case e.g. "after", Adessive
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--!
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--3 Sentences and relative clauses
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--
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-- This group has no lexical categories.
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S ; -- sentence (fixed tense) e.g. "John walks", "John walked"
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Cl ; -- clause (variable tense) e.g. "John walks"/"John walked"
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Slash ; -- sentence without NP, e.g. "John waits for (...)"
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RP ; -- relative pronoun, e.g. "which", "the mother of whom"
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RCl ; -- relative clause, e.g. "who walks", "that I wait for"
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--!
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--3 Questions and imperatives
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--
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-- This group has no lexical categories.
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IP ; -- interrogative pronoun, e.g. "who", "whose mother", "which yellow car"
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IAdv ; -- interrogative adverb., e.g. "when", "why"
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QCl ; -- question, e.g. "who walks"
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Imp ; -- imperative, e.g. "walk!"
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--!
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--3 Coordination and subordination
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--
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Conj ; -- conjunction, e.g. "and"
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ConjD ; -- distributed conj. e.g. "both - and"
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Subj ; -- subjunction, e.g. "if", "when"
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ListS ; -- list of sentences
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ListAP ; -- list of adjectival phrases
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ListNP ; -- list of noun phrases
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--!
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--3 Complete utterances
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--
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-- This group has no lexical categories.
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Phr ; -- full phrase, e.g. "John walks.","Who walks?", "Wait for me!"
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Text ; -- sequence of phrases e.g. "One is odd. Therefore, two is even."
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---- next
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V2A ; -- paint the house red
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V2V ; -- promise John to come / ask John to come
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V2S ; -- tell John that it is raining
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VQ ; -- ask who comes
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V2Q ; -- ask John who comes
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VA ; -- look yellow
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V0 ; -- (it) rains
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AS ; -- (it is) important that he comes
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A2S ; -- (it is) important for me that he comes
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AV ; -- difficult to play
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A2V ; -- difficult for him to play
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-- NB: it is difficult to play the sonata
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-- vs. it (the sonata) is difficult to play
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--- also: John is easy (for you) to please vs. John is eager to please
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QS ; -- question with fixed tense and polarity
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RS ; -- relative clause with fixed tense and polarity
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TP ; -- tense x polarity selector
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Tense ; -- (abstract) tense
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Ant ; -- (abstract) anteriority
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--!
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--3 Nouns and noun phrases
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--
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fun
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UseN : N -> CN ; -- "car"
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UsePN : PN -> NP ; -- "John"
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---- SymbPN : String -> PN ; -- "x"
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---- SymbCN : CN -> String -> CN ; -- "number x"
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---- IntCN : CN -> Int -> CN ; -- "number 53"
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IndefOneNP : CN -> NP ; -- "a car", "cars"
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IndefNumNP : Num -> CN -> NP ; -- "houses", "86 houses"
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DefOneNP : CN -> NP ; -- "the car"
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DefNumNP : Num -> CN -> NP ; -- "the cars", "the 86 cars"
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DetNP : Det -> CN -> NP ; -- "every car"
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MassNP : CN -> NP ; -- "wine"
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AppN2 : N2 -> NP -> CN ; -- "successor of zero"
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AppN3 : N3 -> NP -> N2 ; -- "flight from Paris"
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UseN2 : N2 -> CN ; -- "successor"
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ModAP : AP -> CN -> CN ; -- "red car"
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CNthatS : CN -> S -> CN ; -- "idea that the Earth is flat"
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ModGenOne : NP -> CN -> NP ; -- "John's car"
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ModGenNum : Num -> NP -> CN -> NP ; -- "John's cars", "John's 86 cars"
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---- UseInt : Int -> Num ; -- "32" --- assumes i > 1
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NoNum : Num ; -- no numeral modifier
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--!
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--3 Adjectives and adjectival phrases
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--
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UseA : A -> AP ; -- "red"
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ComplA2 : A2 -> NP -> AP ; -- "divisible by two"
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PositADeg : ADeg -> AP ; -- "old"
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ComparADeg : ADeg -> NP -> AP ; -- "older than John"
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SuperlNP : ADeg -> CN -> NP ; -- "the oldest man"
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--!
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--3 Verbs and verb phrases
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--
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-- The principal way of forming sentences ($S$) is by combining a noun phrase
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-- with a verb phrase (the $PredVP$ rule below). In addition to this, verb
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-- phrases have uses in relative clauses and questions. Verb phrases already
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-- have (or have not) a negation, but they are formed from verbal groups
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-- ($VG$), which have both positive and negative forms.
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PredV : NP -> V -> Cl ; -- "John walks"
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PredPassV : NP -> V -> Cl ; -- "John is seen"
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PredV2 : NP -> V2 -> NP -> Cl ; -- "John sees Mary"
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PredReflV2 : NP -> V2 -> Cl ; -- "John loves himself"
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PredVS : NP -> VS -> S -> Cl ; -- "John says that Mary runs"
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PredVV : NP -> VV -> VPI -> Cl ; -- "John must walk"
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PredVQ : NP -> VQ -> QS -> Cl ; -- "John asks who will come"
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PredVA : NP -> VA -> AP -> Cl ; -- "John looks ill"
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PredV2A : NP -> V2A -> NP ->AP ->Cl ; -- "John paints the house red"
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PredSubjV2V : NP -> V2V -> NP ->VPI ->Cl ; -- "John promises Mary to leave"
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PredAP : NP -> AP -> Cl ; -- "John is old"
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PredSuperl : NP -> ADeg -> Cl ; -- "John is the oldest"
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PredCN : NP -> CN -> Cl ; -- "John is a man"
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PredNP : NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "John is Bill"
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PredPP : NP -> PP -> Cl ; -- "John is in France"
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PredAV : NP -> AV ->VPI ->Cl ; -- "John is eager to leave"
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PredObjA2V : NP -> A2V -> NP ->VPI ->Cl ; -- "John is easy for us to convince"
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PredObjV2V : NP -> V2V -> NP -> VPI -> Cl ; -- "John asks me to come"
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PredV2S : NP -> V2S -> NP -> S -> Cl ; -- "John told me that it is good"
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PredV2Q : NP -> V2Q -> NP -> QS -> Cl ; -- "John asked me if it is good"
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PredAS : AS -> S -> Cl ; -- "it is good that he comes"
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PredV0 : V0 -> Cl ; -- "it is raining"
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-- Partial saturation.
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UseV2 : V2 -> V ; -- "loves"
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ComplV3 : V3 -> NP -> V2 ; -- "prefers wine (to beer)"
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ComplA2S : A2S -> NP -> AS ; -- "good for John"
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TransVV2 : VV -> V2 -> V2 ; -- (which song do you) want to play
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UseV2V : V2V -> VV ;
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UseV2S : V2S -> VS ;
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UseV2Q : V2Q -> VQ ;
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UseA2S : A2S -> AS ;
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UseA2V : A2V -> AV ;
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-- Formation of infinitival phrases.
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--- PosVP, NegVP : Ant -> VP -> VPI ;
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ProgVG : VP -> VP ; -- he is eating
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AdjPart : V -> A ; -- forgotten
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UseCl : TP -> Cl -> S ;
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UseRCl : TP -> RCl -> RS ;
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UseQCl : TP -> QCl -> QS ;
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PosTP : Tense -> Ant -> TP ;
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NegTP : Tense -> Ant -> TP ;
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TPresent : Tense ;
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TPast : Tense ;
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TFuture : Tense ;
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TConditional : Tense ;
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ASimul : Ant ;
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AAnter : Ant ;
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--!
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--3 Adverbs
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--
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-- Here is how complex adverbs can be formed and used.
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AdjAdv : AP -> Adv ; -- "freely", "more consciously than you"
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AdvPP : PP -> Adv ; -- "in London", "after the war"
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PrepNP : Prep -> NP -> PP ; -- "in London", "after the war"
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AdvVP : VP -> AdV -> VP ; -- "always walks", "walks in the park"
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AdvCN : CN -> PP -> CN ; -- "house in London"
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AdvAP : AdA -> AP -> AP ; -- "very good"
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--!
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--3 Sentences and relative clauses
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--
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SlashV2 : NP -> V2 -> Slash ; -- "John doesn't love"
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IdRP : RP ; -- "which"
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FunRP : N2 -> RP -> RP ; -- "the successor of which"
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RelVP : RP -> VP -> RCl ; -- "who walks", "who doesn't walk"
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RelSlash : RP -> Slash -> RCl ; -- "that I wait for"/"for which I wait"
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ModRS : CN -> RS -> CN ; -- "man who walks"
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RelCl : Cl -> RCl ; -- "such that it is even"
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--!
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--3 Questions and imperatives
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--
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WhoOne, WhoMany : IP ; -- "who (is)", "who (are)"
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WhatOne, WhatMany : IP ; -- "what (is)", "what (are)"
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FunIP : N2 -> IP -> IP ; -- "the mother of whom"
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NounIPOne, NounIPMany : CN -> IP ; -- "which car", "which cars"
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QuestVP : NP -> VP -> QCl ; -- "does John walk"; "doesn't John walk"
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IntVP : IP -> VP -> QCl ; -- "who walks"
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IntSlash : IP -> Slash -> QCl ; -- "whom does John see"
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QuestAdv : IAdv -> NP -> VP -> QCl ; -- "why do you walk"
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PosImperVP, NegImperVP : VP -> Imp ; -- "(don't) be a man"
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----rename these ??
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IndicPhrase : S -> Phr ; -- "I walk."
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QuestPhrase : QS -> Phr ; -- "Do I walk?"
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ImperOne, ImperMany : Imp -> Phr ; -- "Be a man!", "Be men!"
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AdvCl : Cl -> Adv -> Cl ; -- "Therefore, 2 is prime."
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AdvPhr : AdC -> S -> Phr ; -- "Therefore, 2 is prime."
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--!
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--3 Coordination
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--
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-- We consider "n"-ary coordination, with "n" > 1. To this end, we have introduced
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-- a *list category* $ListX$ for each category $X$ whose expressions we want to
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-- conjoin. Each list category has two constructors, the base case being $TwoX$.
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-- We have not defined coordination of all possible categories here,
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-- since it can be tricky in many languages. For instance, $VP$ coordination
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-- is linguistically problematic in German because $VP$ is a discontinuous
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-- category.
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ConjS : Conj -> ListS -> S ; -- "John walks and Mary runs"
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ConjAP : Conj -> ListAP -> AP ; -- "even and prime"
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ConjNP : Conj -> ListNP -> NP ; -- "John or Mary"
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ConjDS : ConjD -> ListS -> S ; -- "either John walks or Mary runs"
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ConjDAP : ConjD -> ListAP -> AP ; -- "both even and prime"
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ConjDNP : ConjD -> ListNP -> NP ; -- "either John or Mary"
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TwoS : S -> S -> ListS ;
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ConsS : ListS -> S -> ListS ;
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TwoAP : AP -> AP -> ListAP ;
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ConsAP : ListAP -> AP -> ListAP ;
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TwoNP : NP -> NP -> ListNP ;
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ConsNP : ListNP -> NP -> ListNP ;
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--!
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--3 Subordination
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--
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-- Subjunctions are different from conjunctions, but form
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-- a uniform category among themselves.
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SubjS : Subj -> S -> S -> S ; -- "if 2 is odd, 3 is even"
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SubjImper : Subj -> S -> Imp -> Imp ; -- "if it is hot, use a glove!"
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SubjQS : Subj -> S -> QS -> QS ; -- "if you are new, who are you?"
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SubjVP : VP -> Subj -> S -> VP ; -- "(a man who) sings when he runs"
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--!
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--2 One-word utterances
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--
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-- These are, more generally, *one-phrase utterances*. The list below
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-- is very incomplete.
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PhrNP : NP -> Phr ; -- "Some man.", "John."
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PhrOneCN, PhrManyCN : CN -> Phr ; -- "A car.", "Cars."
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PhrIP : IAdv -> Phr ; -- "Who?"
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PhrIAdv : IAdv -> Phr ; -- "Why?"
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--!
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--2 Text formation
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--
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-- A text is a sequence of phrases. It is defined like a non-empty list.
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OnePhr : Phr -> Text ;
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ConsPhr : Phr -> Text -> Text ;
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--2 Special constructs.
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--
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-- These constructs tend to have language-specific syntactic realizations.
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OneVP : VP -> Cl ; -- "one walks"
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ExistCN : CN -> Cl ; -- "there is a bar"
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ExistNumCN : Num -> CN -> Cl ; -- "there are (86) bars"
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ExistQCl : CN -> QCl ; -- "is there a bar",
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ExistNumQCl : Num -> CN -> QCl ; -- "are there (86) bars"
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} ;
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