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1086 lines
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1086 lines
30 KiB
HTML
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN">
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<HTML>
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<HEAD>
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<META NAME="generator" CONTENT="http://txt2tags.sf.net">
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<LINK REL="stylesheet" TYPE="text/css" HREF="utf8">
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<TITLE>A Guided Tour of Swedish Grammar</TITLE>
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</HEAD><BODY BGCOLOR="white" TEXT="black">
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<P ALIGN="center"><CENTER><H1>A Guided Tour of Swedish Grammar</H1>
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<FONT SIZE="4">
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<I>Aarne Ranta</I><BR>
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</FONT></CENTER>
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<P></P>
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<HR NOSHADE SIZE=1>
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<P></P>
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<UL>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc1">Computer prerequisites</A>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc2">Words and inflection</A>
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<UL>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc3">Nouns</A>
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<UL>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc4">Quizzes with nouns</A>
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</UL>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc5">Numerals and determiners</A>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc6">Adjectives</A>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc7">The use of adjectives</A>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc8">Personal pronouns</A>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc9">Prepositions</A>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc10">Verbs</A>
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</UL>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc11">Syntactic combinations</A>
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<UL>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc12">Predication</A>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc13">Verbs with different predication patterns</A>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc14">Questions</A>
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</UL>
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<LI><A HREF="#toc15">For developers</A>
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</UL>
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<P></P>
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<HR NOSHADE SIZE=1>
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<P></P>
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<P>
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This is an introduction to the basic grammar of Swedish.
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It is guided by a computer program that knows the rules of the grammar.
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All examples shown during the tour have been produced by that program.
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You can read this document as it is, to get an
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overview of Swedish grammar.
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However, really to exploit the linguistic knowledge included in the program,
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you should try out every rule by itself and also vary the rules in
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interaction with the computer.
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</P>
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<P>
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The same tour is (or will be) available for 17 languages.
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</P>
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<UL>
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<LI><A HREF="tourAra.html">Arabic</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourBul.html">Bulgarian</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourCat.html">Catalan</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourDan.html">Danish</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourDut.html">Dutch</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourEng.html">English</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourFin.html">Finnish</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourFre.html">French</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourGer.html">German</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourIta.html">Italian</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourNor.html">Norwegian</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourPol.html">Polish</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourRon.html">Romanian</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourRus.html">Russian</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourSpa.html">Spanish</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourSwe.html">Swedish</A>
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<LI><A HREF="tourUrd.html">Urdu</A>
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</UL>
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<P>
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See the last section of this document for how to contribute support for
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new languages as a developer.
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</P>
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<A NAME="toc1"></A>
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<H1>Computer prerequisites</H1>
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<P>
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To use the Swedish grammar program and test the grammar yourself, you need
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</P>
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<UL>
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<LI>a computer with Linux, Mac OS, or Windows
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<LI>the program GF (Grammatical Framework), downloadable from
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the <A HREF="http://grammaticalframework.org">GF website</A>
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<LI>the grammar package <CODE>Demo.pgf</CODE>, downloadable from
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<A HREF="http://grammaticalframework.org/lib/doc/Demo.pgf.gz">here</A>
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</UL>
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<P>
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In the future, we plan to provide a web-based version of this grammar tour,
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so that you can ran the program without downloading or installing anything.
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</P>
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<P>
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After installing GF (see instructions at GF website), just start it by
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the shell command
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</P>
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<PRE>
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gf Demo.pgf
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</PRE>
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<P>
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Then initialize the shell with a couple of handy commands:
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</P>
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<TABLE CELLPADDING="4" BORDER="1">
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<TR>
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<TD><CODE>%forms</CODE></TD>
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<TD>show the forms of a word or a phrase in Swedish</TD>
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</TR>
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<TR>
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<TD><CODE>%numeral</CODE></TD>
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<TD>translate a number to a Swedish numeral expression</TD>
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</TR>
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<TR>
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<TD><CODE>%table</CODE></TD>
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<TD>show the inflection table a word or a phrase in Swedish</TD>
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</TR>
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<TR>
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<TD><CODE>%translate</CODE></TD>
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<TD>translate an utterance from English to Swedish</TD>
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</TR>
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</TABLE>
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<P>
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Initialization is made with the command macro definitions in GF:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> dc translate ps -lextext ?0 | parse -cat=Utt -lang=Eng | linearize -lang=Swe
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> dc table linearize -table -lang=Swe ?0
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> dc forms linearize -list -lang=Swe ?0
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> dc numeral ps -chars ?0 | p -cat=Digits -lang=Swe | pt -transfer=digits2num | l -bind -lang=Swe
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</PRE>
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<P>
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This is just to save you some work afterwards and to make this document
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clearer; you could quite as well use the basic commands that are predifined
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in GF, and for some less frequent cases we'll actually use them directly.
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</P>
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<P>
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The <B>prompt</B> sign <CODE>></CODE> is produced by GF, and you should only
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write what is after it. In this document, we will use two kinds of markings
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of type-written lines:
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</P>
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<UL>
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<LI><CODE>></CODE> followed by a command you type
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<LI><CODE>*</CODE> followed by output from GF
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</UL>
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<A NAME="toc2"></A>
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<H1>Words and inflection</H1>
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<P>
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We are ready to start the tour.
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We begin in the same way as grammar books usually do:
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from words and their forms. We will also show the most basic
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syntactic combinations, to explain how the words are used, but
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syntax proper is treated in the next chapter.
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</P>
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<A NAME="toc3"></A>
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<H2>Nouns</H2>
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<P>
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The inflection forms of nouns are shown in the following example:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %table flower_N
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s Sg Indef Nom : blomma
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s Sg Indef Gen : blommas
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s Sg Def Nom : blomman
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s Sg Def Gen : blommans
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s Pl Indef Nom : blommor
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s Pl Indef Gen : blommors
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s Pl Def Nom : blommorna
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s Pl Def Gen : blommornas
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</PRE>
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<P>
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The forms together are an example of an <B>inflection pattern</B>.
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Here are some inflection patterns.
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They show the declensions 1 to 5.
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %forms flower_N
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blomma, blommas, blomman, blommans, blommor, blommors, blommorna, blommornas
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> %forms car_N
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bil, bils, bilen, bilens, bilar, bilars, bilarna, bilarnas
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> %forms cat_N
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katt, katts, katten, kattens, katter, katters, katterna, katternas
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> %forms apple_N
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äpple, äpples, äpplet, äpplets, äpplen, äpplens, äpplena, äpplenas
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> %forms house_N
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hus, hus, huset, husets, hus, hus, husen, husens
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</PRE>
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<P>
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The symbol <CODE>N</CODE> is used in the program to denote nouns. Here it is suffixed to
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English words to indicate the meanings of the Swedish nouns. This meaning
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can be approximative, or just cover one of the possible senses.
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</P>
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<P>
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In addition to inflection forms,
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Swedish nouns also have a gender. The gender is reflected, among
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other things, in the indefinite article used with the nouns.
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %translate "a man"
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en man
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> %translate "a woman"
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en kvinna
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> %translate "a house"
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ett hus
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</PRE>
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<P>
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The grammar training program has a small lexicon, with just 182 nouns. To see
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all there nouns, together with their inflection forms and senses explained in
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English, you can do as follows:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> generate_trees -cat=N -number=5 | linearize -treebank -list -lang=Swe
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Demo: airplane_N
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DemoSwe: flygplan, flygplans, flygplanet, flygplanets, flygplan, flygplans, flygplanen, flygplanens
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Demo: animal_N
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DemoSwe: djur, djurs, djuret, djurets, djur, djurs, djuren, djurens
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Demo: apartment_N
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DemoSwe: lägenhet, lägenhets, lägenheten, lägenhetens, lägenheter, lägenheters, lägenheterna, lägenheternas
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Demo: apple_N
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DemoSwe: äpple, äpples, äpplet, äpplets, äpplen, äpplens, äpplena, äpplenas
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Demo: art_N
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DemoSwe: konst, konsts, konsten, konstens, konster, konsters, konsterna, konsternas
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</PRE>
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<P></P>
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<A NAME="toc4"></A>
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<H3>Quizzes with nouns</H3>
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<P>
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If you already know some Swedish,
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you can try out a <B>morphology quiz</B>, which lets you train your knowledge
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of Swedish noun inflection. You can later train your inflection skills with
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other parts of speech, just changing the symbol <CODE>N</CODE> to some other symbol.
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</P>
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<PRE>
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morpho_quiz -cat=N -lang=Swe
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Welcome to GF Morphology Quiz.
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The quiz is over when you have done at least 10 examples
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with at least 75 % success.
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You can interrupt the quiz by entering a line consisting of a dot ('.').
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vetenskap s Sg Def Gen
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vetenskapens
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> Yes.
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Score 1/1
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kyrka s Pl Indef Nom
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kyrker
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> No, not kyrker, but
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kyrkor
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Score 1/2
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</PRE>
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<P>
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(The above quiz example is swedish for all languages, for technical reasons.)
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</P>
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<P>
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The quiz questions are randomly generated, so you can use the same
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quiz for increasing your Swedish skills over and over again.
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</P>
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<P>
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Another quiz is the <B>translation quiz</B>, which lets you to train translations
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of nouns from English to Swedish (or, in fact, of any part of speech from any
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language to any other one). Here is how it goes
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(to Swedish, for the sake of example):
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</P>
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<PRE>
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translation_quiz -from=DemoEng -to=DemoSwe -cat=N
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Welcome to GF Translation Quiz.
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The quiz is over when you have done at least 10 examples
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with at least 75 % success.
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You can interrupt the quiz by entering a line consisting of a dot ('.').
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ceiling
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tak
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> Yes.
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Score 1/1
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night
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nat
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> No, not nat, but
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natt
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</PRE>
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<P></P>
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<A NAME="toc5"></A>
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<H2>Numerals and determiners</H2>
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<P>
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Numerals are in Swedish the easiest way to build complex noun phrases from nouns,
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since their forms are independent of the noun; the noun is just inflected in
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the plural indefinite. This is with the exception of "one", whose form depends
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on the gender of the noun. Here is a quick way to generate the numerals from 1
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to 9:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> generate_trees -cat=Sub10 -number=9 | l -lang=Eng,Swe
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two
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två
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three
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tre
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four
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fyra
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five
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fem
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six
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sex
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seven
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sju
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eight
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åtta
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nine
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nio
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two
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två
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</PRE>
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<P>
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Any sequence of digits from 1 to 999999 can be translated
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to a Swedish numeral with the <CODE>%numeral</CODE> command:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %numeral "10"
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tio
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> %numeral "11"
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elva
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> %numeral "20"
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tjugo
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> %numeral "123"
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etthundra tjugotre
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> %numeral "999999"
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niohundra nittioniotusen niohundra nittionio
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</PRE>
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<P>
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Numerals can be combined with nouns to form <B>noun phrases</B>:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %translate "one boy"
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en pojke
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> %translate "one apple"
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ett äpple
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> %translate "two boys"
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två pojkar
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> %translate "eleven cars"
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elva bilar
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</PRE>
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<P>
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Numerals are a special case of <B>determiners</B>: words that are
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combined with nouns to
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form <B>noun phrases</B>. Articles are anouther special case;
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we already saw the indefinite articles:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %translate "a man"
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en man
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> %translate "a woman"
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en kvinna
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> %translate "a car"
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en bil
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> %translate "a house"
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ett hus
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</PRE>
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<P>
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Here are examples with definite articles.
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In Swedish, they are expressed by inflecting the noun
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rather than adding a word like English <I>the</I>.
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %translate "the man"
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mannen
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> %translate "the woman"
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kvinnan
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> %translate "the car"
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bilen
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> %translate "the house"
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huset
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</PRE>
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<P>
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Definite articles in the plural:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %translate "the men"
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männen
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> %translate "the women"
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kvinnorna
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> %translate "the cars"
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bilarna
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> %translate "the houses"
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husen
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</PRE>
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<P>
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The indefinite forms in the plural form look as follows.
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English, like many other languages, have no explicit indefinite article:
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just use the plural form of the noun.
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %translate "men"
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män
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> %translate "women"
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kvinnor
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> %translate "cars"
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bilar
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> %translate "houses"
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hus
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</PRE>
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<P>
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Other common determiners are shown in the following:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %translate "this car"
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den här bilen
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> %translate "that car"
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den där bilen
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> %translate "these cars"
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de här bilarna
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> %translate "those cars"
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de där bilarna
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> %translate "some cars"
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några bilar
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> %translate "all cars"
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</PRE>
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<P>
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Generate more examples of nouns with determiners:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> gr -number=11 (UttNP (DetCN ? (UseN ?))) | l -lang=Eng,Swe
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some sister
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någon syster
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many men
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många män
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those dusts
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de där dammen
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many pens
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många pennor
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some sticks
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några pinnar
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every boss
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varje chef
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few houses
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få hus
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some wars
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några krig
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some school
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någon skola
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many moons
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många månar
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a flower
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en blomma
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</PRE>
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<P>
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You will find out that other determiners can combine with numerals, such as in
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %translate "these seven sisters"
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de här sju systrarna
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> %translate "the seven sisters"
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de sju systrarna
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</PRE>
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<P>
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thus with a numeral, the definite article suddenly appears as a word.
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</P>
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<P>
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The random generation above used a <B>pattern</B> for generating
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expressions of the form <CODE>(UttNP (DetCN ? (UseN ?)))</CODE>, where just the
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question marks may vary. Such patterns can also be used to fine-tune quizzes.
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For instance, here is a translation quiz for nouns with determiners:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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trans_quiz -from=DemoEng -to=DemoSwe (UttNP (DetCN ? (UseN ?)))
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</PRE>
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<P></P>
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<A NAME="toc6"></A>
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<H2>Adjectives</H2>
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<P>
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Adjectives generally have more forms than nouns. Here is an example showing the
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available forms for Swedish adjectives:
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</P>
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<PRE>
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> %table warm_A
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s (AF (APosit (Strong (GSg Utr))) Nom) : varm
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s (AF (APosit (Strong (GSg Utr))) Gen) : varms
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s (AF (APosit (Strong (GSg Neutr))) Nom) : varmt
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s (AF (APosit (Strong (GSg Neutr))) Gen) : varmts
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s (AF (APosit (Strong GPl)) Nom) : varma
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s (AF (APosit (Strong GPl)) Gen) : varmas
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s (AF (APosit (Weak Sg)) Nom) : varma
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s (AF (APosit (Weak Sg)) Gen) : varmas
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s (AF (APosit (Weak Pl)) Nom) : varma
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s (AF (APosit (Weak Pl)) Gen) : varmas
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s (AF ACompar Nom) : varmare
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|
s (AF ACompar Gen) : varmares
|
|
s (AF (ASuperl SupStrong) Nom) : varmast
|
|
s (AF (ASuperl SupStrong) Gen) : varmasts
|
|
s (AF (ASuperl SupWeak) Nom) : varmaste
|
|
s (AF (ASuperl SupWeak) Gen) : varmastes
|
|
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The comparative and superlative forms are often formed syntactically, by using
|
|
words similar to <I>more</I> and <I>most</I>.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Here are some examples of adjective inflections:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %forms good_A
|
|
god, gods, gott, gotts, goda, godas, goda, godas, goda, godas, bättre, bättres, bäst, bästs, bästa, bästas
|
|
|
|
> %forms bad_A
|
|
dålig, dåligs, dåligt, dåligts, dåliga, dåligas, dåliga, dåligas, dåliga, dåligas, sämre, sämres, sämst, sämsts, sämsta, sämstas
|
|
|
|
> %forms rotten_A
|
|
rutten, ruttens, ruttet, ruttets, ruttna, ruttnas, ruttna, ruttnas, ruttna, ruttnas, ruttnare, ruttnares, ruttnast, ruttnasts, ruttnaste, ruttnastes
|
|
|
|
> %forms important_A
|
|
viktig, viktigs, viktigt, viktigts, viktiga, viktigas, viktiga, viktigas, viktiga, viktigas, viktigare, viktigares, viktigast, viktigasts, viktigaste, viktigastes
|
|
|
|
> %forms stupid_A
|
|
dum, dums, dumt, dumts, dumma, dummas, dumma, dummas, dumma, dummas, dummare, dummares, dummast, dummasts, dummaste, dummastes
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The morpho quiz for adjectives is as one would expect:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
morpho_quiz -cat=A -lang=DemoSwe
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P></P>
|
|
<A NAME="toc7"></A>
|
|
<H2>The use of adjectives</H2>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Adjectives can be used to <B>modify</B> nouns.
|
|
The form of the adjective may then depend on the gender of the noun.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "old man"
|
|
gammal man
|
|
|
|
> %translate "old woman"
|
|
gammal kvinna
|
|
|
|
> %translate "old house"
|
|
gammalt hus
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The adjective+noun combination is inflected for the same forms as the
|
|
bare noun:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> parse -cat=CN "old house" | %forms
|
|
gammalt hus, gammalt hus, gamla hus, gamla hus, gamla huset, gamla husets, gamla hus, gamla hus, gamla hus, gamla hus, gamla husen, gamla husens
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Here are the quizzes for training the adjectival modification of nouns:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
translate_quiz -from=DemoEng -to=DemoSwe (AdjCN (PositA ?) (UseN ?))
|
|
|
|
morpho_quiz -lang=DemoSwe (AdjCN (PositA ?) (UseN ?))
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Adjectives can be combined to <B>adjectival phrases</B> (AP). One way to do this
|
|
is by means of <B>adadjectives</B>, such as <I>very</I> and <I>too</I>:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> p -lang=Eng -cat=AP "very old" | l -lang=Swe
|
|
mycket gammal
|
|
|
|
> p -lang=Eng -cat=AP "too heavy" | l -lang=Swe
|
|
för tung
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The <B>comparative</B> forms can be used for building adjectival phrases together
|
|
with noun phrase complements:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> p -lang=Eng -cat=AP "warmer than the sun" | l -lang=Swe
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Also these complex AP's can modify common nouns. The word order can be different
|
|
from modification with simple adjectives.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> p -lang=Eng -cat=CN "country warmer than the sun" | l -lang=Swe
|
|
|
|
> p -lang=Eng -cat=CN "very warm country" | l -lang=Swe
|
|
mycket varmt land
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Quizzes for such constructions are as follows:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
translate_quiz -from=DemoEng -to=DemoSwe (AdjCN ? (UseN ?))
|
|
|
|
morpho_quiz -lang=DemoSwe (AdjCN ? (UseN ?))
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P></P>
|
|
<A NAME="toc8"></A>
|
|
<H2>Personal pronouns</H2>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Personal pronouns have many forms:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %table we_Pron
|
|
s NPNom : vi
|
|
s NPAcc : oss
|
|
s (NPPoss (GSg Utr)) : vår
|
|
s (NPPoss (GSg Neutr)) : vårt
|
|
s (NPPoss GPl) : våra
|
|
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Here are the forms of all personal pronouns of Swedish:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %forms i_Pron
|
|
jag, mig, min, mitt, mina
|
|
|
|
> %forms youSg_Pron
|
|
du, dig, din, ditt, dina
|
|
|
|
> %forms youPol_Pron
|
|
ni, er, er, ert, era
|
|
|
|
> %forms he_Pron
|
|
han, honom, hans, hans, hans
|
|
|
|
> %forms she_Pron
|
|
hon, henne, hennes, hennes, hennes
|
|
|
|
> %forms we_Pron
|
|
vi, oss, vår, vårt, våra
|
|
|
|
> %forms youPl_Pron
|
|
ni, er, er, ert, era
|
|
|
|
> %forms they_Pron
|
|
de, dem, deras, deras, deras
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Notice the polite and plural forms of <I>you</I>, which English doesn't have.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The <B>possessive</B> forms of pronouns are used as determiners:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "her house , my car and our children"
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Here's the pattern for training the combination of possessive pronouns and
|
|
nouns, with the <CODE>morpho_quiz</CODE> and <CODE>translate_quiz</CODE> commands:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
(DetCN (DetQuant (PossPron ?) ?) (UseN ?))
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P></P>
|
|
<A NAME="toc9"></A>
|
|
<H2>Prepositions</H2>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Prepositions are not inflected. But when attached to noun phrases, they may
|
|
affect the inflection of the noun phrase. In some languages, no preposition
|
|
word may be shown, but just a different form of the noun phrase.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "my yellow house"
|
|
mitt gula hus
|
|
|
|
> %translate "in my yellow house"
|
|
i mitt gula hus
|
|
|
|
> %translate "to my yellow house"
|
|
till mitt gula hus
|
|
|
|
> %translate "from my yellow house"
|
|
från mitt gula hus
|
|
|
|
> %translate "with my yellow house"
|
|
med mitt gula hus
|
|
|
|
> %translate "without my yellow house"
|
|
utan mitt gula hus
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Pronouns show in some languages even more variation.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<P>
|
|
To train prepositional phrases, use the pattern
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
(PrepNP ? ?)
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P></P>
|
|
<A NAME="toc10"></A>
|
|
<H2>Verbs</H2>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Verbs usually have more inflection forms than any other words:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %table sleep_V
|
|
s (VF (VPres Act)) : sover
|
|
s (VF (VPres Pass)) : sovs
|
|
s (VF (VPret Act)) : sov
|
|
s (VF (VPret Pass)) : sovs
|
|
s (VF (VImper Act)) : sov
|
|
s (VF (VImper Pass)) : sovs
|
|
s (VI (VInfin Act)) : sova
|
|
s (VI (VInfin Pass)) : sovas
|
|
s (VI (VSupin Act)) : sovit
|
|
s (VI (VSupin Pass)) : sovits
|
|
s (VI (VPtPret (Strong (GSg Utr)) Nom)) : soven
|
|
s (VI (VPtPret (Strong (GSg Utr)) Gen)) : sovens
|
|
s (VI (VPtPret (Strong (GSg Neutr)) Nom)) : sovet
|
|
s (VI (VPtPret (Strong (GSg Neutr)) Gen)) : sovets
|
|
s (VI (VPtPret (Strong GPl) Nom)) : sovna
|
|
s (VI (VPtPret (Strong GPl) Gen)) : sovnas
|
|
s (VI (VPtPret (Weak Sg) Nom)) : sovna
|
|
s (VI (VPtPret (Weak Sg) Gen)) : sovnas
|
|
s (VI (VPtPret (Weak Pl) Nom)) : sovna
|
|
s (VI (VPtPret (Weak Pl) Gen)) : sovnas
|
|
part :
|
|
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Here are some inflection examples:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %forms speak_V2
|
|
talar, talas, talade, talades, tala, talas, tala, talas, talat, talats, talad, talads, talat, talats, talade, talades, talade, talades, talade, talades, ,
|
|
|
|
> %forms play_V2
|
|
spelar, spelas, spelade, spelades, spela, spelas, spela, spelas, spelat, spelats, spelad, spelads, spelat, spelats, spelade, spelades, spelade, spelades, spelade, spelades, ,
|
|
|
|
> %forms buy_V2
|
|
köper, köps, köpte, köptes, köp, köps, köpa, köpas, köpt, köpts, köpt, köpts, köpt, köpts, köpta, köptas, köpta, köptas, köpta, köptas, ,
|
|
|
|
> %forms run_V
|
|
springer, springs, sprang, sprangs, spring, springs, springa, springas, sprungit, sprungits, sprungen, sprungens, sprunget, sprungets, sprungna, sprungnas, sprungna, sprungnas, sprungna, sprungnas,
|
|
|
|
> %forms walk_V
|
|
går, gås, gick, gicks, gå, gås, gå, gås, gått, gåtts, gången, gångens, gånget, gångets, gångna, gångnas, gångna, gångnas, gångna, gångnas,
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
In some languages, verbs can be very irregular.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<P>
|
|
There are different <B>subcategories</B> of verbs: intransitive verbs (V), two-place
|
|
verbs (V2), sentence-complement verbs (VS). The differences have to do with
|
|
syntax, and will be discussed later.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<A NAME="toc11"></A>
|
|
<H1>Syntactic combinations</H1>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Above, we have discussed some syntactic combinations:
|
|
determination (<I>the car</I>, <I>this car</I>) and adjectival modification
|
|
(<I>old car</I>). In this chapter, we concentrate on the formation of
|
|
sentences.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<A NAME="toc12"></A>
|
|
<H2>Predication</H2>
|
|
<P>
|
|
In <B>predication</B>, a verb is give its <B>arguments</B>:
|
|
the <B>subject</B> (the one who does something)
|
|
and the <B>complements</B> (what is done, to whom it is done, etc). The simplest
|
|
predication is with <B>intransitive verbs</B>, which only have the subject:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "he walks"
|
|
han går
|
|
|
|
> %translate "we sleep"
|
|
vi sover
|
|
|
|
> %translate "the very old woman sings"
|
|
den mycket gamla kvinnan sjunger
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
A predication forms a <B>clause</B>, which corresponds to many different
|
|
(yes or no), and possibly a word order (inverted question, subordinate clause),
|
|
a mood (indicative, subjunctive). Here is a table showing what forms a clause
|
|
can have in Swedish:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> p -cat=Cl -lang=Eng "the man walks" | %table
|
|
s Pres Simul Pos Main : mannen går
|
|
s Pres Simul Pos Inv : går mannen
|
|
s Pres Simul Pos Sub : mannen går
|
|
s Pres Simul Neg Main : mannen går inte
|
|
s Pres Simul Neg Inv : går mannen inte
|
|
s Pres Simul Neg Sub : mannen inte går
|
|
s Pres Anter Pos Main : mannen har gått
|
|
s Pres Anter Pos Inv : har mannen gått
|
|
s Pres Anter Pos Sub : mannen har gått
|
|
s Pres Anter Neg Main : mannen har inte gått
|
|
s Pres Anter Neg Inv : har mannen inte gått
|
|
s Pres Anter Neg Sub : mannen inte har gått
|
|
s Past Simul Pos Main : mannen gick
|
|
s Past Simul Pos Inv : gick mannen
|
|
s Past Simul Pos Sub : mannen gick
|
|
s Past Simul Neg Main : mannen gick inte
|
|
s Past Simul Neg Inv : gick mannen inte
|
|
s Past Simul Neg Sub : mannen inte gick
|
|
s Past Anter Pos Main : mannen hade gått
|
|
s Past Anter Pos Inv : hade mannen gått
|
|
s Past Anter Pos Sub : mannen hade gått
|
|
s Past Anter Neg Main : mannen hade inte gått
|
|
s Past Anter Neg Inv : hade mannen inte gått
|
|
s Past Anter Neg Sub : mannen inte hade gått
|
|
s Fut Simul Pos Main : mannen ska gå
|
|
s Fut Simul Pos Inv : ska mannen gå
|
|
s Fut Simul Pos Sub : mannen ska gå
|
|
s Fut Simul Neg Main : mannen ska inte gå
|
|
s Fut Simul Neg Inv : ska mannen inte gå
|
|
s Fut Simul Neg Sub : mannen inte ska gå
|
|
s Fut Anter Pos Main : mannen ska ha gått
|
|
s Fut Anter Pos Inv : ska mannen ha gått
|
|
s Fut Anter Pos Sub : mannen ska ha gått
|
|
s Fut Anter Neg Main : mannen ska inte ha gått
|
|
s Fut Anter Neg Inv : ska mannen inte ha gått
|
|
s Fut Anter Neg Sub : mannen inte ska ha gått
|
|
s Cond Simul Pos Main : mannen skulle gå
|
|
s Cond Simul Pos Inv : skulle mannen gå
|
|
s Cond Simul Pos Sub : mannen skulle gå
|
|
s Cond Simul Neg Main : mannen skulle inte gå
|
|
s Cond Simul Neg Inv : skulle mannen inte gå
|
|
s Cond Simul Neg Sub : mannen inte skulle gå
|
|
s Cond Anter Pos Main : mannen skulle ha gått
|
|
s Cond Anter Pos Inv : skulle mannen ha gått
|
|
s Cond Anter Pos Sub : mannen skulle ha gått
|
|
s Cond Anter Neg Main : mannen skulle inte ha gått
|
|
s Cond Anter Neg Inv : skulle mannen inte ha gått
|
|
s Cond Anter Neg Sub : mannen inte skulle ha gått
|
|
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The following quiz can be used for training the inflection of intransitive
|
|
clauses:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
morpho_quiz -lang=DemoSwe (PredVP (UsePron ?) (UseV ?))
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The following quiz translates English sentences in random tenses and polarities:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
translate_quiz -from=DemoEng -to=DemoSwe (UseCl ? ? (PredVP (UsePron ?) (UseV ?)))
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P></P>
|
|
<A NAME="toc13"></A>
|
|
<H2>Verbs with different predication patterns</H2>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Transitive verbs take an object in the accusative case (if there is a case):
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "he loves her"
|
|
han älskar henne
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
A generalization is two-place verbs, where the object is in some other case, or
|
|
has a preposition. What is transitive in one language can often require a
|
|
preposition in another language:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "he waits for her"
|
|
han väntar på henne
|
|
|
|
> %translate "he likes her"
|
|
han tycker om henne
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Three-place verbs usually take an object and another argument:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "the king gave the city to the queen"
|
|
kungen gav staden till drottningen
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
There are also verbs that have a sentence or a question as an argument,
|
|
possibly with an object:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "he said that the man walks"
|
|
han sade att mannen går
|
|
|
|
> %translate "he wonders who sleeps"
|
|
han undrar vem som sover
|
|
|
|
> %translate "he asked me who sleeps"
|
|
han frågade mig vem som sover
|
|
|
|
> %translate "we answer to him that everybody sleeps"
|
|
vi svarar till honom att alla sover
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
There are also verbs that take other verbs (with their complements) as arguments:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "we must sleep"
|
|
vi måste sova
|
|
|
|
> %translate "we want to wait for her"
|
|
vi vill vänta på henne
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The verb <I>to be</I> takes adjectives and noun phrases as arguments:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "he is very old"
|
|
han är mycket gammal
|
|
|
|
> %translate "he is an old man"
|
|
han är en gammal man
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The following quiz can be used for training the inflection of clauses with
|
|
any verb:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
morpho_quiz -lang=DemoSwe (PredVP (UsePron ?) ?)
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The following quiz can be used for training the inflection of clauses with
|
|
<I>to be</I>:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
morpho_quiz -lang=DemoSwe (PredVP (UsePron ?) (UseComp ?))
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
The following quiz translates English sentences in random tenses and polarities:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
translate_quiz -from=DemoEng -to=DemoSwe (UseCl ? ? (PredVP (UsePron ?) ?))
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P></P>
|
|
<A NAME="toc14"></A>
|
|
<H2>Questions</H2>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Questions are similar to sentences, but can have a different word order:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "is he very old"
|
|
är han mycket gammal
|
|
|
|
> %translate "would I sleep"
|
|
skulle jag sova
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Questions can moreover have <B>interrogatives</B> as their arguments,
|
|
instead of norman nouns:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "who doesn't sleep"
|
|
vem sover inte
|
|
|
|
> %translate "whom did she see"
|
|
vem såg hon
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
Sentences without interrogatives can be made to questions with
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
> %translate "where will we sleep"
|
|
var ska vi sova
|
|
|
|
> %translate "why didn't she wait for us"
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varför väntade hon inte på oss
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</PRE>
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|
<P></P>
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|
<A NAME="toc15"></A>
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|
<H1>For developers</H1>
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|
<P>
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|
There are three levels of involvement, from the easiest to the hardest,
|
|
</P>
|
|
<OL>
|
|
<LI>create the default tour for a language that is in the GF resource grammar library
|
|
(takes less than a minute, if you have the tools listed below)
|
|
<LI>customize the tour for a language that is in the library
|
|
(worth spending a couple of hours on)
|
|
<LI>add a language to the library and build the tour for it
|
|
(an undertaking of a few months)
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|
</OL>
|
|
|
|
<P>
|
|
1. To create the tour for a language that is in the library, e.g. Spanish,
|
|
just run
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
make Spa
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
in the directory <CODE>GF/lib/doc/tour</CODE>. You need the following things for this
|
|
to work out
|
|
</P>
|
|
<UL>
|
|
<LI>the program GF (Grammatical Framework), downloadable from
|
|
the <A HREF="http://grammaticalframework.org">GF website</A>
|
|
<LI>the precompiled grammar package <CODE>Demo.pgf</CODE>, downloadable from
|
|
<A HREF="http://grammaticalframework.org/lib/doc/Demo.pgf.gz">here</A> or makeable in
|
|
<CODE>GF/lib/src</CODE> with <CODE>make demo</CODE>
|
|
<LI>the command <CODE>runghc</CODE> available in any <A HREF="http://www.haskell.org/ghc">GHC</A> installation
|
|
<LI>the command <A HREF="http://txt2tags.sourceforge.net/"><CODE>txt2tags</CODE></A>
|
|
</UL>
|
|
|
|
<P>
|
|
2. To customize the tour, edit the master file <CODE>GF/lib/doc/tour/tour.txt</CODE>.
|
|
The customization mainly proceeds by adding lines marked <CODE>#Spa</CODE> (if Spanish is
|
|
your target language). This can be done both for text lines, e.g.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
#Spa Swedish has separate second-person plural pronouns for both genders.
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
and for GF command lines, e.g.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
#Spa %translate "you are very old"
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
In both cases, one can also add <CODE>#Spa</CODE> to the existing markings if they are
|
|
adequate, e.g.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
#Fre,Spa Swedish has two genders: the masculine and the feminine.
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
<P>
|
|
It's in particular for this purpose that we recommend using the variable <CODE>Swedish</CODE>
|
|
rather than the constant <CODE>Spanish</CODE>. The <CODE>make</CODE> procedure replaces the variable with
|
|
the constant automatically. Similarly, the language code <CODE>Spa</CODE> used in GF commands
|
|
should be avoided and the variable <CODE>Swe</CODE> used instead.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<P>
|
|
In general, the master file <CODE>tour.txt</CODE> is processed line by line. It has five kinds
|
|
of lines, distinguished by the prefix of the line:
|
|
</P>
|
|
<UL>
|
|
<LI><CODE>#</CODE> <I>LANGS</I> <CODE>></CODE> <I>COMMAND</I> : language-specific GF command
|
|
<LI><CODE>#</CODE> <I>LANGS</I> <I>TEXT</I> : language-specific text
|
|
<LI><CODE>></CODE> <I>COMMAND</I> : language-independent GF command
|
|
<LI><CODE>*</CODE> : ignored; included for the sake of documentation
|
|
<LI>any other text : language-independet text
|
|
</UL>
|
|
|
|
<P>
|
|
Here <I>LANGS</I> is a comma-separated list of 3-letter language codes,
|
|
such as <CODE>Fre,Spa,Ita</CODE>.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<P>
|
|
3. To contribute a new language to the library, see the
|
|
<A HREF="http://grammaticalframework.org/doc/gfss">GF Resource Grammar Project</A>.
|
|
</P>
|
|
<P>
|
|
In cases (2) and (3), please contribute your work to the GF community!
|
|
</P>
|
|
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