Extending resource.

grammars/database/Database.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+abstract Database = {
+
+flags startcat=Query ;
+
+cat 
+  Query ; 
+  Category ; Subject ; Value ; Property ; Relation ; Comparison ; Name ;
+  Feature ;
+
+fun 
+  WhichAre  : Category -> Property -> Query ;
+  IsThere   : Category             -> Query ;
+  AreThere  : Category             -> Query ;
+  IsIt      : Subject -> Property  -> Query ; 
+  WhatIs    : Value                -> Query ;
+
+  MoreThan   : Comparison -> Subject  -> Property ;
+  TheMost    : Comparison -> Category -> Value ;
+  Relatively : Comparison -> Category -> Property ;
+
+  RelatedTo  : Relation -> Subject -> Property ;
+
+  Individual : Name -> Subject ;
+  AllN       : Category -> Subject ;
+  Any        : Category -> Subject ;
+  MostN      : Category -> Subject ;
+  EveryN     : Category -> Subject ;
+
+  FeatureOf  : Feature -> Subject -> Subject ;
+  ValueOf    : Feature -> Name -> Value ;
+
+  WithProperty : Category -> Property -> Category ;
+} ;

grammars/database/DatabaseEng.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+--# -path=.:../resource/nabstract:../resource/nenglish:../prelude
+
+concrete DatabaseEng of Database = open Prelude, ResEng in {
+
+flags lexer=text ; unlexer=text ;
+
+lincat 
+  Query      = Phr ;
+  Subject    = NP ;
+  Category   = CN ;  
+  Property   = AP ;
+  Comparison = AdjDeg ;
+  Relation   = Adj2 ;
+  Feature    = Fun ;
+  Value      = NP ;
+  Name       = PN ;
+
+lin
+  WhichAre A B = QuestPhrase (IntVP (NounIPMany A) (PosA B)) ;
+  IsThere A = QuestPhrase (IsThereCN A) ;
+  AreThere A = QuestPhrase (AreThereCN A) ;
+  WhatIs val = QuestPhrase (IntVP WhatOne (PosNP val)) ;
+  IsIt Q A = QuestPhrase (QuestVP Q (PosA A)) ;
+
+  MoreThan   = ComparAdjP ;
+  TheMost    = SuperlNP ;
+  Relatively C _ = PositAdjP C ; 
+
+  RelatedTo  = ComplAdj ;
+
+  FeatureOf f x = DefOneNP (AppFun f x) ;
+  ValueOf f x = DefOneNP (AppFun f (UsePN x)) ;
+
+  WithProperty A B = ModAdj B A ;
+
+  Individual = UsePN ;
+
+  AllN = DetNP AllDet ;
+  MostN = DetNP MostDet ;
+  EveryN = DetNP EveryDet ;
+  Any = DetNP AnysDet ;
+
+} ;

grammars/database/DatabaseEngRes.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+resource DatabaseEngRes = open Prelude in {
+oper
+  mkSent : SS -> SS -> SS1 Bool = \long, short -> 
+    {s = table {b => if_then_else Str b long.s short.s}} ;
+
+  mkSentPrel : Str -> SS -> SS1 Bool = \prel, matter -> 
+    mkSent (ss (prel ++ matter.s)) matter ;
+
+  mkSentSame : SS -> SS1 Bool = \s -> 
+    mkSent s s ;
+} ;

grammars/database/Restaurant.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+abstract Restaurant = Database ** {
+
+fun 
+  Restaurant, Bar : Category ;
+  French, Italian, Indian, Japanese : Property ;
+  address, phone, priceLevel : Feature ;
+  Cheap, Expensive : Comparison ;
+
+  WhoRecommend : Name -> Query ;
+  WhoHellRecommend : Name -> Query ;
+
+-- examples of restaurant names
+  LucasCarton : Name ;
+  LaCoupole : Name ;
+  BurgerKing : Name ;
+} ;

grammars/database/RestaurantEng.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+--# -path=.:../resource/nabstract:../resource/nenglish:../prelude
+
+concrete RestaurantEng of Restaurant = 
+  DatabaseEng ** open Prelude,ParadigmsEng in {
+
+lin 
+  Restaurant = cnNonhuman "restaurant" ;
+  Bar = cnNonhuman "bar" ;
+  French = apReg "French" ;
+  Italian = apReg "Italian" ;
+  Indian = apReg "Indian" ;
+  Japanese = apReg "Japanese" ;
+
+  address = funNonhuman "address" ;
+  phone = funNonhuman ["number"] ;  --- phone
+  priceLevel = funNonhuman ["level"] ; --- price
+
+  Cheap = aReg "cheap" ;
+  Expensive = aRidiculous "expensive" ;
+
+  WhoRecommend rest = 
+    ss (["who recommended"] ++ rest.s ! nominative) ** {lock_Phr = <>} ;
+  WhoHellRecommend rest = 
+    ss (["who the hell recommended"] ++ rest.s ! nominative) ** {lock_Phr = <>} ;
+
+  LucasCarton = pnReg ["Lucas Carton"] ;
+  LaCoupole = pnReg ["La Coupole"] ;
+  BurgerKing = pnReg ["Burger King"] ;
+
+} ;

grammars/resource/nabstract/Combinations.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,263 @@
+--1 Abstract Syntax for Multilingual Resource Grammar
+--
+-- Aarne Ranta 2002 -- 2003
+--
+-- Although concrete syntax differs a lot between different languages,
+-- many structures can be found that are common, on a certain level
+-- of abstraction. What we will present in the following is an abstract 
+-- syntax that has been successfully defined for English, Finnish, French, German, 
+-- Italian, Russian, and Swedish. It has been applied to define language
+-- fragments on technical or near-to-technical domains: database queries,
+-- video recorder dialogue systems, software specifications, and a 
+-- health-related phrase book. Each new application helped to identify some
+-- missing structures in the resource and suggested some additions, but the
+-- number of them was usually small.
+-- 
+-- To use the resource in applications, you need the following 
+-- $cat$ and $fun$ rules in $oper$ form, completed by taking the
+-- $lincat$ and $lin$ judgements of a particular language. This is done
+-- by using the $reuse$ module with the desired concrete syntax of
+-- $ResAbs$ as argument.
+
+
+--2 Categories
+--
+-- The categories of this resource grammar are mostly 'standard' categories
+-- of linguistics. Their is no claim that they correspond to semantic categories
+-- definable in type theory: to define such correspondences is the business
+-- of applications grammars.
+--
+-- Categories that may look special are $Adj2$, $Fun$, and $TV$. They are all
+-- instances of endowing another category with a complement, which can be either
+-- a direct object (whose case may vary) or a prepositional phrase. This, together
+-- with the category $Adv$, removes the need of a category of 
+-- 'prepositional phrases', which is too language-dependent to make sense
+-- on this level of abstraction.
+--
+
+abstract Combinations = PredefAbs ** {
+
+--3 Nouns and noun phrases
+--
+
+cat
+  N ;      -- simple common noun,    e.g. "car"
+  CN ;     -- common noun phrase,    e.g. "red car", "car that John owns"
+  NP ;     -- noun phrase,           e.g. "John", "all cars", "you"
+  PN ;     -- proper name,           e.g. "John", "New York"
+  Det ;    -- determiner,            e.g. "every", "all"
+  Fun ;    -- function word,         e.g. "mother (of)"
+  Fun2 ;   -- two-place function,    e.g. "flight (from) (to)"
+
+--3 Adjectives and adjectival phrases
+--
+
+  Adj1 ;   -- one-place adjective,   e.g. "even"
+  Adj2 ;   -- two-place adjective,   e.g. "divisible (by)"
+  AdjDeg ; -- degree adjective,      e.g. "big/bigger/biggest"
+  AP ;     -- adjective phrase,      e.g. "divisible by two", "bigger than John"
+
+--3 Verbs and verb phrases
+--
+
+  V ;      -- one-place verb,        e.g. "walk"
+  TV ;     -- two-place verb,        e.g. "love", "wait (for)", "switch on"
+  V3 ;     -- three-place verb,      e.g. "give", "prefer (stg) (to stg)"
+  VS ;     -- sentence-compl. verb,  e.g. "say", "prove"
+  VP ;     -- verb phrase,           e.g. "switch the light on"
+
+--3 Adverbials
+--
+
+  AdV ;    -- adverbial              e.g. "now", "in the house"
+  AdA ;    -- ad-adjective           e.g. "very"
+  AdS ;    -- sentence adverbial     e.g. "therefore", "otherwise"
+  Prep ;   -- pre/postposition, case e.g. "after", Adessive
+
+--3 Sentences and relative clauses
+--
+
+  S ;      -- sentence,              e.g. "John walks"
+  Slash ;  -- sentence without NP,   e.g. "John waits for (...)"
+  RP ;     -- relative pronoun,      e.g. "which", "the mother of whom"
+  RC ;     -- relative clause,       e.g. "who walks", "that I wait for"
+
+--3 Questions and imperatives
+--
+
+  IP ;     -- interrogative pronoun, e.g. "who", "whose mother", "which yellow car"
+  IAdv ;   -- interrogative adverb., e.g. "when", "why" 
+  Qu ;     -- question,              e.g. "who walks"
+  Imp ;    -- imperative,            e.g. "walk!"
+
+--3 Coordination and subordination
+--
+
+  Conj ;   -- conjunction,           e.g. "and"
+  ConjD ;  -- distributed conj.      e.g. "both - and"
+  Subj ;   -- subjunction,           e.g. "if", "when"
+
+  ListS ;  -- list of sentences
+  ListAP ; -- list of adjectival phrases
+  ListNP ; -- list of noun phrases
+
+--3 Complete utterances
+--
+
+  Phr ;    -- full phrase,           e.g. "John walks.","Who walks?", "Wait for me!"
+  Text ;   -- sequence of phrases    e.g. "One is odd. Therefore, two is even."
+
+
+--2 Rules
+--
+-- This set of rules is minimal, in the sense of defining the simplest combinations
+-- of categories and not having redundant rules.
+-- When the resource grammar is used as a library, it will often be useful to
+-- access it through an intermediate library that defines more rules as 
+-- 'macros' for combinations of the ones below.
+
+--3 Nouns and noun phrases
+--
+
+fun 
+  UseN : N -> CN ;                         -- "car"
+  ModAdj : AP -> CN -> CN ;                -- "red car"
+  DetNP : Det -> CN -> NP ;                -- "every car"
+  MassNP : CN -> NP ;                      -- "wine"
+  IntNP : Int -> CN -> NP ;                -- "86 houses" --- assumes i > 1
+  DefIntNP : Int -> CN -> NP ;             -- "the 86 houses" --- assumes i > 1
+  IndefOneNP, IndefManyNP : CN -> NP ;     -- "a car", "cars"
+  DefOneNP, DefManyNP : CN -> NP ;         -- "the car", "the cars"
+  ModGenOne, ModGenMany : NP -> CN -> NP ; -- "John's car", "John's cars"
+  UsePN : PN -> NP ;                       -- "John"
+  UseFun : Fun -> CN ;                     -- "successor"
+  AppFun : Fun -> NP -> CN ;               -- "successor of zero"
+  AppFun2 : Fun2 -> NP -> Fun ;            -- "flight from Paris"
+  CNthatS : CN -> S -> CN ;                -- "idea that the Earth is flat"
+
+--3 Adjectives and adjectival phrases
+--
+
+  AdjP1 : Adj1 -> AP ;                     -- "red"
+  ComplAdj : Adj2 -> NP -> AP ;            -- "divisible by two"
+  PositAdjP : AdjDeg -> AP ;               -- "old"
+  ComparAdjP : AdjDeg -> NP -> AP ;        -- "older than John"
+  SuperlNP : AdjDeg -> CN -> NP ;          -- "the oldest man"
+
+--3 Verbs and verb phrases
+--
+
+  PosV, NegV : V -> VP ;                   -- "walk", "doesn't walk"
+  PosA, NegA : AP -> VP ;                  -- "is old", "isn't old"
+  PosCN, NegCN : CN -> VP ;                -- "is a man", "isn't a man"
+  PosTV, NegTV : TV -> NP -> VP ;          -- "sees John", "doesn't see John"
+  PosPassV, NegPassV : V -> VP ;           -- "is seen", "is not seen"
+  PosNP, NegNP : NP -> VP ;                -- "is John", "is not John"
+  PosVS, NegVS : VS -> S -> VP ;           -- "says that I run", "doesn't say..."
+  PosV3, NegV3 : V3 -> NP -> NP -> VP ;    -- "prefers wine to beer"
+  VTrans : TV -> V ;                       -- "loves"
+
+--3 Adverbials
+--
+
+  AdvVP : VP -> AdV -> VP ;                -- "always walks", "walks in the park" 
+  PrepNP : Prep -> NP -> AdV ;             -- "in London", "after the war"
+  AdvCN : CN -> AdV -> CN ;                -- "house in London", "house today"
+
+  AdvAP : AdA -> AP -> AP ;                -- "very good"
+
+
+--3 Sentences and relative clauses
+--
+
+  PredVP : NP -> VP -> S ;                     -- "John walks"
+  PosSlashTV, NegSlashTV : NP -> TV -> Slash ; -- "John sees", "John doesn's see"
+  OneVP : VP -> S ;                            -- "one walks"
+  ThereIsCN, ThereAreCN : CN -> S ;            -- "there is a car", "there are cars"
+
+  IdRP : RP ;                              -- "which"
+  FunRP : Fun -> RP -> RP ;                -- "the successor of which"
+  RelVP : RP -> VP -> RC ;                 -- "who walks"
+  RelSlash : RP -> Slash -> RC ;           -- "that I wait for"/"for which I wait" 
+  ModRC : CN -> RC -> CN ;                 -- "man who walks"
+  RelSuch : S -> RC ;                      -- "such that it is even"
+
+--3 Questions and imperatives
+--
+
+  WhoOne, WhoMany : IP ;                   -- "who (is)", "who (are)"
+  WhatOne, WhatMany : IP ;                 -- "what (is)", "what (are)"
+  FunIP : Fun -> IP -> IP ;                -- "the mother of whom"
+  NounIPOne, NounIPMany : CN -> IP ;       -- "which car", "which cars"
+
+  QuestVP : NP -> VP -> Qu ;               -- "does John walk"
+  IntVP : IP -> VP -> Qu ;                 -- "who walks"
+  IntSlash : IP -> Slash -> Qu ;           -- "whom does John see"
+  QuestAdv : IAdv -> NP -> VP -> Qu ;      -- "why do you walk"
+  IsThereCN, AreThereCN : CN -> Qu ;       -- "is there a bar", "are there bars"
+
+  ImperVP : VP -> Imp ;                    -- "be a man"
+
+  IndicPhrase : S -> Phr ;                 -- "I walk."
+  QuestPhrase : Qu -> Phr ;                -- "Do I walk?"
+  ImperOne, ImperMany : Imp -> Phr ;       -- "Be a man!", "Be men!"
+
+  AdvS : AdS -> S -> Phr ;                 -- "Therefore, 2 is prime."
+
+--3 Coordination
+--
+-- We consider "n"-ary coordination, with "n" > 1. To this end, we have introduced
+-- a *list category* $ListX$ for each category $X$ whose expressions we want to
+-- conjoin. Each list category has two constructors, the base case being $TwoX$.
+
+-- We have not defined coordination of all possible categories here,
+-- since it can be tricky in many languages. For instance, $VP$ coordination
+-- is linguistically problematic in German because $VP$ is a discontinuous
+-- category.
+
+  ConjS  : Conj -> ListS -> S ;            -- "John walks and Mary runs"
+  ConjAP : Conj -> ListAP -> AP ;          -- "even and prime"
+  ConjNP : Conj -> ListNP -> NP ;          -- "John or Mary"
+
+  ConjDS  : ConjD -> ListS -> S ;          -- "either John walks or Mary runs"
+  ConjDAP : ConjD -> ListAP -> AP ;        -- "both even and prime"
+  ConjDNP : ConjD -> ListNP -> NP ;        -- "either John or Mary"
+
+  TwoS  : S -> S -> ListS ;
+  ConsS : ListS -> S -> ListS ;
+
+  TwoAP  : AP -> AP -> ListAP ;
+  ConsAP : ListAP -> AP -> ListAP ;
+
+  TwoNP  : NP -> NP -> ListNP ;
+  ConsNP : ListNP -> NP -> ListNP ;
+
+--3 Subordination
+--
+-- Subjunctions are different from conjunctions, but form
+-- a uniform category among themselves.
+
+  SubjS     : Subj -> S -> S -> S ;        -- "if 2 is odd, 3 is even"
+  SubjImper : Subj -> S -> Imp -> Imp ;    -- "if it is hot, use a glove!"
+  SubjQu    : Subj -> S -> Qu -> Qu ;      -- "if you are new, who are you?"
+  SubjVP    : VP -> Subj -> S -> VP ;      -- "(a man who) sings when he runs"
+
+--2 One-word utterances
+--
+-- These are, more generally, *one-phrase utterances*. The list below
+-- is very incomplete.
+
+  PhrNP : NP -> Phr ;                      -- "Some man.", "John."
+  PhrOneCN, PhrManyCN : CN -> Phr ;        -- "A car.", "Cars."
+  PhrIP : IAdv -> Phr ;                    -- "Who?"
+  PhrIAdv : IAdv -> Phr ;                  -- "Why?"
+
+--2 Text formation
+--
+-- A text is a sequence of phrases. It is defined like a non-empty list.
+  
+  OnePhr  : Phr -> Text ;
+  ConsPhr : Phr -> Text -> Text ;
+
+} ;
+

grammars/resource/nabstract/PredefAbs.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+abstract PredefAbs = {
+  cat String ; Int ;
+} ;
+

grammars/resource/nabstract/ResAbs.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,275 @@
+--1 Abstract Syntax for Multilingual Resource Grammar
+--
+-- Aarne Ranta 2002 -- 2003
+--
+-- Although concrete syntax differs a lot between different languages,
+-- many structures can be found that are common, on a certain level
+-- of abstraction. What we will present in the following is an abstract 
+-- syntax that has been successfully defined for English, Finnish, French, German, 
+-- Italian, Russian, and Swedish. It has been applied to define language
+-- fragments on technical or near-to-technical domains: database queries,
+-- video recorder dialogue systems, software specifications, and a 
+-- health-related phrase book. Each new application helped to identify some
+-- missing structures in the resource and suggested some additions, but the
+-- number of them was usually small.
+-- 
+-- To use the resource in applications, you need the following 
+-- $cat$ and $fun$ rules in $oper$ form, completed by taking the
+-- $lincat$ and $lin$ judgements of a particular language. This is done
+-- by using the $reuse$ module with the desired concrete syntax of
+-- $ResAbs$ as argument.
+
+
+--2 Categories
+--
+-- The categories of this resource grammar are mostly 'standard' categories
+-- of linguistics. Their is no claim that they correspond to semantic categories
+-- definable in type theory: to define such correspondences is the business
+-- of applications grammars.
+--
+-- Categories that may look special are $Adj2$, $Fun$, and $TV$. They are all
+-- instances of endowing another category with a complement, which can be either
+-- a direct object (whose case may vary) or a prepositional phrase. This, together
+-- with the category $Adv$, removes the need of a category of 
+-- 'prepositional phrases', which is too language-dependent to make sense
+-- on this level of abstraction.
+--
+
+abstract ResAbs = {
+
+--3 Nouns and noun phrases
+--
+
+cat
+  N ;      -- simple common noun,    e.g. "car"
+  CN ;     -- common noun phrase,    e.g. "red car", "car that John owns"
+  NP ;     -- noun phrase,           e.g. "John", "all cars", "you"
+  PN ;     -- proper name,           e.g. "John", "New York"
+  Det ;    -- determiner,            e.g. "every", "all"
+  Fun ;    -- function word,         e.g. "mother (of)"
+  Fun2 ;   -- two-place function,    e.g. "flight (from) (to)"
+
+--3 Adjectives and adjectival phrases
+--
+
+  Adj1 ;   -- one-place adjective,   e.g. "even"
+  Adj2 ;   -- two-place adjective,   e.g. "divisible (by)"
+  AdjDeg ; -- degree adjective,      e.g. "big/bigger/biggest"
+  AP ;     -- adjective phrase,      e.g. "divisible by two", "bigger than John"
+
+--3 Verbs and verb phrases
+--
+
+  V ;      -- one-place verb,        e.g. "walk"
+  TV ;     -- two-place verb,        e.g. "love", "wait (for)", "switch on"
+  V3 ;     -- three-place verb,      e.g. "give", "prefer (stg) (to stg)"
+  VS ;     -- sentence-compl. verb,  e.g. "say", "prove"
+  VP ;     -- verb phrase,           e.g. "switch the light on"
+
+--3 Adverbials
+--
+
+  AdV ;    -- adverbial              e.g. "now", "in the house"
+  AdA ;    -- ad-adjective           e.g. "very"
+  AdS ;    -- sentence adverbial     e.g. "therefore", "otherwise"
+
+--3 Sentences and relative clauses
+--
+
+  S ;      -- sentence,              e.g. "John walks"
+  Slash ;  -- sentence without NP,   e.g. "John waits for (...)"
+  RP ;     -- relative pronoun,      e.g. "which", "the mother of whom"
+  RC ;     -- relative clause,       e.g. "who walks", "that I wait for"
+
+--3 Questions and imperatives
+--
+
+  IP ;     -- interrogative pronoun, e.g. "who", "whose mother", "which yellow car"
+  IAdv ;   -- interrogative adverb., e.g. "when", "why" 
+  Qu ;     -- question,              e.g. "who walks"
+  Imp ;    -- imperative,            e.g. "walk!"
+
+--3 Coordination and subordination
+--
+
+  Conj ;   -- conjunction,           e.g. "and"
+  ConjD ;  -- distributed conj.      e.g. "both - and"
+  Subj ;   -- subjunction,           e.g. "if", "when"
+
+  ListS ;  -- list of sentences
+  ListAP ; -- list of adjectival phrases
+  ListNP ; -- list of noun phrases
+
+--3 Complete utterances
+--
+
+  Phr ;    -- full phrase,           e.g. "John walks.","Who walks?", "Wait for me!"
+  Text ;   -- sequence of phrases    e.g. "One is odd. Therefore, two is even."
+
+
+--2 Rules
+--
+-- This set of rules is minimal, in the sense of defining the simplest combinations
+-- of categories and not having redundant rules.
+-- When the resource grammar is used as a library, it will often be useful to
+-- access it through an intermediate library that defines more rules as 
+-- 'macros' for combinations of the ones below.
+
+--3 Nouns and noun phrases
+--
+
+fun 
+  UseN : N -> CN ;                         -- "car"
+  ModAdj : AP -> CN -> CN ;                -- "red car"
+  DetNP : Det -> CN -> NP ;                -- "every car"
+  IndefOneNP, IndefManyNP : CN -> NP ;     -- "a car", "cars"
+  DefOneNP, DefManyNP : CN -> NP ;         -- "the car", "the cars"
+  ModGenOne, ModGenMany : NP -> CN -> NP ; -- "John's car", "John's cars"
+  UsePN : PN -> NP ;                       -- "John"
+  UseFun : Fun -> CN ;                     -- "successor"
+  AppFun : Fun -> NP -> CN ;               -- "successor of zero"
+  AppFun2 : Fun2 -> NP -> Fun ;            -- "flight from Paris"
+  CNthatS : CN -> S -> CN ;                -- "idea that the Earth is flat"
+
+--3 Adjectives and adjectival phrases
+--
+
+  AdjP1 : Adj1 -> AP ;                     -- "red"
+  ComplAdj : Adj2 -> NP -> AP ;            -- "divisible by two"
+  PositAdjP : AdjDeg -> AP ;               -- "old"
+  ComparAdjP : AdjDeg -> NP -> AP ;        -- "older than John"
+  SuperlNP : AdjDeg -> CN -> NP ;          -- "the oldest man"
+
+--3 Verbs and verb phrases
+--
+
+  PosV, NegV : V -> VP ;                   -- "walk", "doesn't walk"
+  PosA, NegA : AP -> VP ;                  -- "is old", "isn't old"
+  PosCN, NegCN : CN -> VP ;                -- "is a man", "isn't a man"
+  PosTV, NegTV : TV -> NP -> VP ;          -- "sees John", "doesn't see John"
+  PosPassV, NegPassV : V -> VP ;           -- "is seen", "is not seen"
+  PosNP, NegNP : NP -> VP ;                -- "is John", "is not John"
+  PosVS, NegVS : VS -> S -> VP ;           -- "says that I run", "doesn't say..."
+  PosV3, NegV3 : V3 -> NP -> NP -> VP ;    -- "prefers wine to beer"
+  VTrans : TV -> V ;                       -- "loves"
+
+--3 Adverbials
+--
+
+  AdvVP : VP -> AdV -> VP ;                -- "always walks", "walks in the park" 
+  LocNP : NP -> AdV ;                      -- "in London"
+  AdvCN : CN -> AdV -> CN ;                -- "house in London", "house today"
+
+  AdvAP : AdA -> AP -> AP ;                -- "very good"
+
+
+--3 Sentences and relative clauses
+--
+
+  PredVP : NP -> VP -> S ;                     -- "John walks"
+  PosSlashTV, NegSlashTV : NP -> TV -> Slash ; -- "John sees", "John doesn's see"
+  OneVP : VP -> S ;                            -- "one walks"
+
+  IdRP : RP ;                              -- "which"
+  FunRP : Fun -> RP -> RP ;                -- "the successor of which"
+  RelVP : RP -> VP -> RC ;                 -- "who walks"
+  RelSlash : RP -> Slash -> RC ;           -- "that I wait for"/"for which I wait" 
+  ModRC : CN -> RC -> CN ;                 -- "man who walks"
+  RelSuch : S -> RC ;                      -- "such that it is even"
+
+--3 Questions and imperatives
+--
+
+  WhoOne, WhoMany : IP ;                   -- "who (is)", "who (are)"
+  WhatOne, WhatMany : IP ;                 -- "what (is)", "what (are)"
+  FunIP : Fun -> IP -> IP ;                -- "the mother of whom"
+  NounIPOne, NounIPMany : CN -> IP ;       -- "which car", "which cars"
+
+  QuestVP : NP -> VP -> Qu ;               -- "does John walk"
+  IntVP : IP -> VP -> Qu ;                 -- "who walks"
+  IntSlash : IP -> Slash -> Qu ;           -- "whom does John see"
+  QuestAdv : IAdv -> NP -> VP -> Qu ;      -- "why do you walk"
+
+  ImperVP : VP -> Imp ;                    -- "be a man"
+
+  IndicPhrase : S -> Phr ;                 -- "I walk."
+  QuestPhrase : Qu -> Phr ;                -- "Do I walk?"
+  ImperOne, ImperMany : Imp -> Phr ;       -- "Be a man!", "Be men!"
+
+  AdvS : AdS -> S -> Phr ;                 -- "Therefore, 2 is prime."
+
+--3 Coordination
+--
+-- We consider "n"-ary coordination, with "n" > 1. To this end, we have introduced
+-- a *list category* $ListX$ for each category $X$ whose expressions we want to
+-- conjoin. Each list category has two constructors, the base case being $TwoX$.
+
+-- We have not defined coordination of all possible categories here,
+-- since it can be tricky in many languages. For instance, $VP$ coordination
+-- is linguistically problematic in German because $VP$ is a discontinuous
+-- category.
+
+  ConjS  : Conj -> ListS -> S ;            -- "John walks and Mary runs"
+  ConjAP : Conj -> ListAP -> AP ;          -- "even and prime"
+  ConjNP : Conj -> ListNP -> NP ;          -- "John or Mary"
+
+  ConjDS  : ConjD -> ListS -> S ;          -- "either John walks or Mary runs"
+  ConjDAP : ConjD -> ListAP -> AP ;        -- "both even and prime"
+  ConjDNP : ConjD -> ListNP -> NP ;        -- "either John or Mary"
+
+  TwoS  : S -> S -> ListS ;
+  ConsS : ListS -> S -> ListS ;
+
+  TwoAP  : AP -> AP -> ListAP ;
+  ConsAP : ListAP -> AP -> ListAP ;
+
+  TwoNP  : NP -> NP -> ListNP ;
+  ConsNP : ListNP -> NP -> ListNP ;
+
+--3 Subordination
+--
+-- Subjunctions are different from conjunctions, but form
+-- a uniform category among themselves.
+
+  SubjS     : Subj -> S -> S -> S ;        -- "if 2 is odd, 3 is even"
+  SubjImper : Subj -> S -> Imp -> Imp ;    -- "if it is hot, use a glove!"
+  SubjQu    : Subj -> S -> Qu -> Qu ;      -- "if you are new, who are you?"
+  SubjVP    : VP -> Subj -> S -> VP ;      -- "(a man who) sings when he runs"
+
+--2 One-word utterances
+--
+-- These are, more generally, *one-phrase utterances*. The list below
+-- is very incomplete.
+
+  PhrNP : NP -> Phr ;                      -- "Some man.", "John."
+  PhrOneCN, PhrManyCN : CN -> Phr ;        -- "A car.", "Cars."
+  PhrIP : IAdv -> Phr ;                    -- "Who?"
+  PhrIAdv : IAdv -> Phr ;                  -- "Why?"
+
+--2 Text formation
+--
+-- A text is a sequence of phrases. It is defined like a non-empty list.
+  
+  OnePhr  : Phr -> Text ;
+  ConsPhr : Phr -> Text -> Text ;
+
+--2 Examples of structural words
+-- 
+-- Here we have some words belonging to closed classes and appearing
+-- in all languages we have considered.
+-- Sometimes they are not really meaningful, e.g. $TheyNP$ in French
+-- should really be replaced by masculine and feminine variants.
+
+  EveryDet, AllDet, WhichDet, MostDet : Det ; -- every, all, which, most
+  INP, ThouNP, HeNP, SheNP, ItNP : NP ;       -- personal pronouns in singular
+  WeNP, YeNP, TheyNP : NP ;                   -- personal pronouns in plural
+  YouNP : NP ;                                -- the polite you
+  WhenIAdv,WhereIAdv,WhyIAdv,HowIAdv : IAdv ; -- when, where, why, how
+  AndConj, OrConj : Conj ;                    -- and, or
+  BothAnd, EitherOr, NeitherNor : ConjD ;     -- both-and, either-or, neither-nor
+  IfSubj, WhenSubj : Subj ;                   -- if, when
+  PhrYes, PhrNo : Phr ;                       -- yes, no
+  VeryAdv, TooAdv : AdA ;                     -- very, too
+  OtherwiseAdv, ThereforeAdv : AdS ;          -- therefore, otherwise            
+} ;
+

grammars/resource/nabstract/Structural.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+--2 Examples of structural words
+-- 
+-- Here we have some words belonging to closed classes and appearing
+-- in all languages we have considered.
+-- Sometimes they are not really meaningful, e.g. $TheyNP$ in French
+-- should really be replaced by masculine and feminine variants.
+
+abstract Structural = Combinations ** {
+
+fun
+  EveryDet, AllDet, WhichDet, MostDet : Det ; -- every, all, which, most
+  SomeDet, SomesDet, AnyDet, AnysDet, NoDet,  -- sg/pl some, any, no
+  NosDet, ManyDet, MuchDet : Det ;            -- many, much
+  ThisDet, TheseDet, ThatDet, ThoseDet : Det ;-- (this, these, that, those) car(s)
+  ThisNP, TheseNP, ThatNP, ThoseNP : NP ;     -- this, these, that, those
+  INP, ThouNP, HeNP, SheNP, ItNP : NP ;       -- personal pronouns in singular
+  WeNP, YeNP, TheyNP : NP ;                   -- personal pronouns in plural
+  YouNP : NP ;                                -- the polite you
+  EverybodyNP, SomebodyNP, NobodyNP,          -- everybody, somebody, nobody
+  EverythingNP, SomethingNP, NothingNP : NP ; -- everything, something, nothing
+  WhenIAdv,WhereIAdv,WhyIAdv,HowIAdv : IAdv ; -- when, where, why, how
+  EverywhereNP, SomewhereNP, NowhereNP : AdV ;-- everywhere, somewhere, nowhere  
+  AndConj, OrConj : Conj ;                    -- and, or
+  BothAnd, EitherOr, NeitherNor : ConjD ;     -- both-and, either-or, neither-nor
+  IfSubj, WhenSubj, AlthoughSubj : Subj ;     -- if, when, although
+  PhrYes, PhrNo : Phr ;                       -- yes, no
+  VeryAdv, TooAdv : AdA ;                     -- very, too
+  AlmostAdv, QuiteAdv : AdA ;                 -- almost, quite
+  OtherwiseAdv, ThereforeAdv : AdS ;          -- therefore, otherwise            
+  InPrep, OnPrep, ToPrep, FromPrep,           -- spatial relations
+  ThroughPrep, AbovePrep, UnderPrep,
+  InFrontPrep, BehindPrep, BetweenPrep : Prep ;
+  BeforePrep, DuringPrep, AfterPrep : Prep ;  -- temporal relations
+  WithPrep, WithoutPrep, ByMeansPrep : Prep ; -- some other relations
+  AgentPrep : Prep ;                          -- agent "by" in passive constructions
+}

grammars/resource/nabstract/TestResource.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+abstract TestResource = Structural ** {
+
+-- a random sample of lexicon to test resource grammar with
+
+fun
+  Big, Small, Old, Young : AdjDeg ;
+  American, Finnish : Adj1 ;
+  Married : Adj2 ; 
+  Man, Woman, Car, House, Light : N ;
+  Walk, Run : V ;
+  Send, Wait, Love, SwitchOn, SwitchOff : TV ;
+  Give, Prefer : V3 ;
+  Say, Prove : VS ;
+  Mother, Uncle : Fun ;
+  Connection : Fun2 ;
+  Well, Always : AdV ;
+  John, Mary : PN ;
+} ;

grammars/resource/nabstract/additions.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+-- added 19/11/2003
+
+-- Combinations.gf
+cat
+  Prep ;                            -- pre/postposition and/or case
+fun 
+  ThereIsCN, ThereAreCN : CN -> S ; -- "there is a bar", "there are bars"
+  PrepNP : Prep -> NP -> AdV ;      -- "in London", "after the war" (replace LocNP)
+  MassNP : CN -> NP ;               -- "wine"
+  IntNP : Int -> CN -> NP ;         -- "86 houses"  --- assumes i > 1
+  DefIntNP : Int -> CN -> NP ;      -- "the 86 houses" --- assumes i > 1
+  IsThereCN, AreThereCN : CN -> Qu ;-- "is there a bar", "are there bars"
+
+Warning: no linearization of AdvAP
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of AdvS
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of AppFun2
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of CNthatS
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of ConsPhr
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of ItNP
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of NegPassV
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of NegV3
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of OnePhr
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of OneVP
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of OtherwiseAdv
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of PosPassV
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of PosV3
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of SubjVP
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of ThereforeAdv
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of TooAdv
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of VTrans
+checking module ResFra
+Warning: no linearization of VeryAdv
+
+
+-- Structural.gf
+
+  SomeDet, SomesDet, AnyDet, AnysDet, NoDet,  -- sg/pl some, any, no
+  NosDet, ManyDet, MuchDet : Det ;            -- many, much
+  ThisDet, TheseDet, ThatDet, ThoseDet : Det ;-- this, these, that, those
+  ThisNP, TheseNP, ThatNP, ThoseNP : NP ;     -- this, these, that, those
+  EverybodyNP, SomebodyNP, NobodyNP,          -- everybody, somebody, nobody
+  EverythingNP, SomethingNP, NothingNP : NP ; -- everything, something, nothing
+  EverywhereNP, SomewhereNP, NowhereNP : Adv ;-- everywhere, somewhere, nowhere  
+  AlthoughSubj : Subj ;                       -- although
+  AlmostAdv, QuiteAdv : AdA ;                 -- almost, quite
+  InPrep, OnPrep, ToPrep, FromPrep,           -- spatial relations
+  ThroughPrep, AbovePrep, UnderPrep,
+  InFrontPrep, BehindPrep, BetweenPrep : Prep ;
+  BeforePrep, DuringPrep, AfterPrep : Prep ;  -- temporal relations
+  WithPrep, WithoutPrep, ByMeansPrep : Prep ; -- some other relations
+  AgentPrep : Prep ;                          -- agent "by" in passive constructions
+
+
+checking module TestFra
+Warning: no linearization of American
+checking module TestFra
+Warning: no linearization of Connection
+checking module TestFra
+Warning: no linearization of Finnish
+checking module TestFra
+Warning: no linearization of Give
+checking module TestFra
+Warning: no linearization of Married
+checking module TestFra
+Warning: no linearization of Prefer

grammars/resource/nenglish/CombinationsEng.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,195 @@
+--# -path=.:../nabstract:../../prelude
+
+--1 The Top-Level English Resource Grammar: Combination Rules
+--
+-- Aarne Ranta 2002 -- 2003
+--
+-- This is the English concrete syntax of the multilingual resource
+-- grammar. Most of the work is done in the file $syntax.Eng.gf$.
+-- However, for the purpose of documentation, we make here explicit the
+-- linearization types of each category, so that their structures and
+-- dependencies can be seen.
+-- Another substantial part are the linearization rules of some
+-- structural words.
+--
+-- The users of the resource grammar should not look at this file for the
+-- linearization rules, which are in fact hidden in the document version.
+-- They should use $resource.Abs.gf$ to access the syntactic rules.
+-- This file can be consulted in those, hopefully rare, occasions in which
+-- one has to know how the syntactic categories are
+-- implemented. The parameter types are defined in $TypesEng.gf$.
+
+concrete CombinationsEng of Combinations = open Prelude, SyntaxEng in {
+
+flags 
+  startcat=Phr ; 
+  lexer=text ;
+  unlexer=text ;
+
+lincat 
+  N      = CommNoun ;         
+      -- = {s : Number => Case => Str}
+  CN     = CommNounPhrase ;   
+      -- = CommNoun ** {g : Gender}
+  NP     = {s : NPForm => Str ; n : Number ; p : Person} ;
+  PN     = {s : Case => Str} ;
+  Det    = {s : Str ; n : Number} ;
+  Fun    = Function ;
+      -- = CommNounPhrase ** {s2 : Preposition} ;
+  Fun2   = Function ** {s3 : Preposition} ;
+
+  Adj1   = Adjective ; 
+      -- = {s : Str}
+  Adj2   = Adjective ** {s2 : Preposition} ;
+  AdjDeg = {s : Degree => Str} ;
+  AP     = Adjective ** {p : Bool} ;
+
+  V      = Verb ; 
+      -- = {s : VForm => Str ; s1 : Particle}
+  VP     = {s : VForm => Str ; s2 : Number => Str ; isAux : Bool} ;
+  TV     = TransVerb ; 
+      -- = Verb ** {s3 : Preposition} ;
+  V3     = TransVerb ** {s4 : Preposition} ;
+  VS     = Verb ;
+
+  AdV    = {s : Str ; p : Bool} ;
+
+  S      = {s : Str} ; 
+  Slash  = {s : Bool => Str ; s2 : Preposition} ;
+  RP     = {s : Gender => Number => NPForm => Str} ;
+  RC     = {s : Gender => Number => Str} ;
+
+  IP     = {s : NPForm => Str ; n : Number} ;
+  Qu     = {s : QuestForm => Str} ;
+  Imp    = {s : Number => Str} ;
+  Phr    = {s : Str} ;
+  Text   = {s : Str} ;
+
+  Conj   = {s : Str ; n : Number} ;
+  ConjD  = {s1 : Str ; s2 : Str ; n : Number} ;
+
+  ListS  = {s1 : Str ; s2 : Str} ;
+  ListAP = {s1 : Str ; s2 : Str ; p : Bool} ;
+  ListNP = {s1,s2 : NPForm => Str ; n : Number ; p : Person} ;
+
+--.
+
+lin 
+  UseN = noun2CommNounPhrase ;
+  ModAdj = modCommNounPhrase ;
+  ModGenOne = npGenDet singular ;
+  ModGenMany = npGenDet plural ;
+  UsePN = nameNounPhrase ;
+  UseFun = funAsCommNounPhrase ;
+  AppFun = appFunComm ;
+  AppFun2 = appFun2 ;
+  AdjP1 = adj2adjPhrase ;
+  ComplAdj = complAdj ;
+  PositAdjP = positAdjPhrase ;
+  ComparAdjP = comparAdjPhrase ;
+  SuperlNP = superlNounPhrase ;
+
+  DetNP = detNounPhrase ;
+  IndefOneNP = indefNounPhrase singular ;
+  IndefManyNP = indefNounPhrase plural ;
+  DefOneNP = defNounPhrase singular ;
+  DefManyNP = defNounPhrase plural ;
+  MassNP = detNounPhrase (mkDeterminer Sg []) ;
+  IntNP n = detNounPhrase (mkDeterminer Pl n.s) ;
+  DefIntNP n = detNounPhrase (mkDeterminer Pl ("the" ++ n.s)) ;
+
+  CNthatS = nounThatSentence ;
+
+  PredVP = predVerbPhrase ;
+  PosV = predVerb True ;
+  NegV = predVerb False ;
+  PosA = predAdjective True ;
+  NegA = predAdjective False ;
+  PosCN = predCommNoun True ;
+  NegCN = predCommNoun False ;
+  PosTV = complTransVerb True ;
+  NegTV = complTransVerb False ;
+  PosV3 = complDitransVerb True ;
+  NegV3 = complDitransVerb False ;
+  PosPassV = passVerb True ;
+  NegPassV = passVerb False ;
+  PosNP = predNounPhrase True ;
+  NegNP = predNounPhrase False ;
+  PosVS = complSentVerb True ;
+  NegVS = complSentVerb False ;
+  VTrans = transAsVerb ;
+
+  AdvVP = adVerbPhrase ;
+  PrepNP p = prepPhrase p.s ; ---
+  AdvCN = advCommNounPhrase ;
+  AdvAP = advAdjPhrase ;
+
+  PosSlashTV = slashTransVerb True ;
+  NegSlashTV = slashTransVerb False ;
+  OneVP = predVerbPhrase (nameNounPhrase (nameReg "one")) ;
+  ThereIsCN A = prefixSS ["there is"]                                ---
+                  (defaultNounPhrase (indefNounPhrase singular A)) ;
+  ThereAreCN A = prefixSS ["there are"]  
+                  (defaultNounPhrase (indefNounPhrase plural A)) ;
+
+  IdRP = identRelPron ;
+  FunRP = funRelPron ;
+  RelVP = relVerbPhrase ;
+  RelSlash = relSlash ;
+  ModRC = modRelClause ;
+  RelSuch = relSuch ;
+
+  WhoOne = intPronWho singular ;
+  WhoMany = intPronWho plural ;
+  WhatOne = intPronWhat singular ;
+  WhatMany = intPronWhat plural ;
+  FunIP = funIntPron ;
+  NounIPOne = nounIntPron singular ;
+  NounIPMany = nounIntPron plural ;
+
+  QuestVP = questVerbPhrase ;
+  IntVP = intVerbPhrase ;
+  IntSlash = intSlash ;
+  QuestAdv = questAdverbial ;
+  IsThereCN = isThere singular ;
+  AreThereCN = isThere plural ;
+
+  ImperVP = imperVerbPhrase ;
+
+  IndicPhrase = indicUtt ;
+  QuestPhrase = interrogUtt ;
+  ImperOne = imperUtterance singular ;
+  ImperMany = imperUtterance plural ;
+
+  AdvS = advSentence ;
+
+  TwoS = twoSentence ;
+  ConsS = consSentence ;
+  ConjS = conjunctSentence ;
+  ConjDS = conjunctDistrSentence ;
+
+  TwoAP = twoAdjPhrase ;
+  ConsAP = consAdjPhrase ;
+  ConjAP = conjunctAdjPhrase ;
+  ConjDAP = conjunctDistrAdjPhrase ;
+
+  TwoNP = twoNounPhrase ;
+  ConsNP = consNounPhrase ;
+  ConjNP = conjunctNounPhrase ;
+  ConjDNP = conjunctDistrNounPhrase ;
+
+  SubjS = subjunctSentence ;
+  SubjImper = subjunctImperative ;
+  SubjQu = subjunctQuestion ;
+  SubjVP = subjunctVerbPhrase ;
+
+  PhrNP = useNounPhrase ;
+  PhrOneCN = useCommonNounPhrase singular ;
+  PhrManyCN = useCommonNounPhrase plural ;
+  PhrIP ip = ip ;
+  PhrIAdv ia = ia ;
+
+  OnePhr p = p ;
+  ConsPhr = cc2 ;
+
+} ;

grammars/resource/nenglish/MorphoEng.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
+--1 A Simple English Resource Morphology
+--
+-- Aarne Ranta 2002
+--
+-- This resource morphology contains definitions needed in the resource
+-- syntax. It moreover contains the most usual inflectional patterns.
+--
+-- We use the parameter types and word classes defined in $Types.gf$.
+
+resource MorphoEng = TypesEng ** open Prelude in {
+
+--2 Nouns
+--
+-- For conciseness and abstraction, we define a worst-case macro for
+-- noun inflection. It is used for defining special case that
+-- only need one string as argument.
+
+oper
+  mkNoun  : (_,_,_,_ : Str) -> CommonNoun = 
+    \man,men, mans, mens -> {s = table {
+       Sg => table {Nom => man ; Gen => mans} ;
+       Pl => table {Nom => men ; Gen => mens}
+      }} ;
+
+  nounReg : Str -> CommonNoun = \dog -> 
+    mkNoun dog (dog + "s") (dog + "'s") (dog + "s'");
+
+  nounS   : Str -> CommonNoun = \kiss -> 
+    mkNoun kiss (kiss + "es") (kiss + "'s") (kiss + "es'") ;
+
+  nounY   : Str -> CommonNoun = \fl -> 
+    mkNoun (fl + "y") (fl + "ies") (fl + "y's") (fl + "ies'") ;
+
+--3 Proper names
+--
+-- Regular proper names are inflected with "'s" in the genitive.
+
+  nameReg : Str -> ProperName = \john -> 
+    {s = table {Nom => john ; Gen => john + "'s"}} ;
+
+
+--2 Pronouns
+--
+-- Here we define personal and relative pronouns.
+
+  mkPronoun : (_,_,_,_ : Str) -> Number -> Person -> Pronoun = \I,me,my,mine,n,p -> 
+    {s = table {NomP => I ; AccP => me ; GenP => my ; GenSP => mine} ; 
+     n = n ; p = p} ;
+
+  pronI = mkPronoun "I" "me" "my" "mine" Sg P1 ;
+  pronYouSg = mkPronoun "you" "you" "your" "yours" Sg P2 ; -- verb form still OK
+  pronHe = mkPronoun "he" "him" "his" "his" Sg P3 ;
+  pronShe = mkPronoun "she" "her" "her" "hers" Sg P3 ;
+  pronIt = mkPronoun "it" "it" "its" "it" Sg P3 ;
+
+  pronWe = mkPronoun "we" "us" "our" "ours" Pl P1 ;
+  pronYouPl = mkPronoun "you" "you" "your" "yours" Pl P2 ;
+  pronThey = mkPronoun "they" "them" "their" "theirs" Pl P3 ;
+
+-- Relative pronouns in the accusative have the 'no pronoun' variant.
+-- The simple pronouns do not really depend on number.
+
+  relPron : RelPron = {s = table {
+    NoHum => \\_ => table {
+      NomP => variants {"that" ; "which"} ;
+      AccP => variants {"that" ; "which" ; []} ;
+      GenP => variants {"whose"} ;
+      GenSP => variants {"which"}
+      } ;
+    Hum => \\_ => table {
+      NomP => variants {"that" ; "who"} ;
+      AccP => variants {"that" ; "who" ; "whom" ; []} ;
+      GenP => variants {"whose"} ;
+      GenSP => variants {"whom"}
+      }
+    }
+  } ;
+
+
+--3 Determiners
+--
+-- We have just a heuristic definition of the indefinite article.
+-- There are lots of exceptions: consonantic "e" ("euphemism"), consonantic
+-- "o" ("one-sided"), vocalic "u" ("umbrella").
+
+  artIndef = pre {"a" ; 
+                  "an" / strs {"a" ; "e" ; "i" ; "o" ; "A" ; "E" ; "I" ; "O" }} ;
+
+  artDef = "the" ;
+
+--2 Adjectives
+--
+-- For the comparison of adjectives, three forms are needed in the worst case.
+
+  mkAdjDegr : (_,_,_ : Str) -> AdjDegr = \good,better,best -> 
+    {s = table {Pos => good ; Comp => better ; Sup => best}} ;
+
+  adjDegrReg : Str -> AdjDegr = \long ->
+    mkAdjDegr long (long + "er") (long + "est") ;
+
+  adjDegrY : Str -> AdjDegr = \lovel ->
+    mkAdjDegr (lovel + "y") (lovel + "ier") (lovel + "iest") ;
+
+-- Many adjectives are 'inflected' by adding a comparison word.
+
+  adjDegrLong : Str -> AdjDegr = \ridiculous ->
+    mkAdjDegr ridiculous ("more" ++ ridiculous) ("most" ++ ridiculous) ;
+
+-- simple adjectives are just strings
+
+  simpleAdj : Str -> Adjective = ss ;
+
+--3 Verbs
+--
+-- Except for "be", the worst case needs four forms.
+
+  mkVerbP3 : (_,_,_,_: Str) -> VerbP3 = \go,goes,went,gone -> 
+    {s = table {
+       InfImp => go ; 
+       Indic P3 => goes ; 
+       Indic _ => go ; 
+       Past _ => went ;
+       PPart => gone
+       }
+    } ;
+
+  mkVerb : (_,_,_ : Str) -> VerbP3 = \ring,rang,rung ->
+    mkVerbP3 ring (ring + "s") rang rung ;
+
+  regVerbP3 : Str -> VerbP3 = \walk -> 
+    mkVerb walk (walk + "ed") (walk + "ed") ;
+
+  verbP3s   : Str -> VerbP3 = \kiss -> 
+    mkVerbP3 kiss (kiss + "es") (kiss + "ed") (kiss + "ed") ;
+
+  verbP3e   : Str -> VerbP3 = \love -> 
+    mkVerbP3 love (love + "s") (love + "d") (love + "d") ;
+
+  verbP3y   : Str -> VerbP3 = \cr -> 
+    mkVerbP3 (cr + "y") (cr + "ies") (cr + "ied") (cr + "ied") ;
+
+  verbP3Have = mkVerbP3 "have" "has" "had" "had" ;
+
+  verbP3Do   = mkVerbP3 "do" "does" "did" "done" ;
+
+  verbBe : VerbP3 = {s = table {
+    InfImp => "be" ; 
+    Indic P1 => "am" ; 
+    Indic P2 => "are" ;
+    Indic P3 => "is" ;
+    Past Sg  => "was" ;
+    Past Pl  => "were" ;
+    PPart => "been"
+    }} ;
+
+  verbPart : VerbP3 -> Particle -> Verb = \v,p ->
+    v ** {s1 = p} ;
+
+  verbNoPart : VerbP3 -> Verb = \v -> verbPart v [] ;
+
+-- The optional negation contraction is a useful macro e.g. for "do".
+
+  contractNot : Str -> Str = \is -> variants {is ++ "not" ; is + "n't"} ;
+
+  dont = contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! InfImp) ;
+} ;
+

grammars/resource/nenglish/ParadigmsEng.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,243 @@
+--# -path=.:../nabstract:../../prelude
+
+--1 English Lexical Paradigms
+--
+-- Aarne Ranta 2003
+--
+-- This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+-- for adding lexical items. It give shortcuts for forming
+-- expressions of basic categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+-- 
+-- Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+-- accessed through the resource syntax API, $resource.Abs.gf$. 
+--
+-- The main difference with $MorphoEng.gf$ is that the types
+-- referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+-- had the design principle of always having existing forms as string
+-- arguments of the paradigms, not stems.
+--
+-- The following modules are presupposed:
+
+resource ParadigmsEng = open (Predef=Predef), Prelude, SyntaxEng, ResEng in {
+
+--2 Parameters 
+--
+-- To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
+
+oper
+  human    : Gender ;
+  nonhuman : Gender ;
+
+-- To abstract over number names, we define the following.
+
+  singular : Number ;
+  plural   : Number ;
+
+
+--2 Nouns
+
+-- Worst case: give all four forms and the semantic gender.
+-- In practice the worst case is just: give singular and plural nominative.
+
+oper
+  mkN  : (man,men,man's,men's : Str) -> Gender -> N ;
+  nMan : (man,men : Str) -> Gender -> N ;
+
+-- Regular nouns, nouns ending with "s", "y", or "o", and nouns with the same
+-- plural form as the singular.
+
+  nReg   : Str -> Gender -> N ;   -- dog, dogs
+  nKiss  : Str -> Gender -> N ;   -- kiss, kisses
+  nFly   : Str -> Gender -> N ;   -- fly, flies
+  nHero  : Str -> Gender -> N ;   -- hero, heroes (= nKiss !)
+  nSheep : Str -> Gender -> N ;   -- sheep, sheep
+  
+-- These use general heuristics, that recognizes the last letter. *N.B* it 
+-- does not get right with "boy", "rush", since it only looks at one letter.
+
+  nHuman    : Str -> N ;  -- gambler/actress/nanny
+  nNonhuman : Str -> N ;  -- dog/kiss/fly
+
+-- Nouns used as functions need a preposition. The most common is "of".
+
+  mkFun : N -> Preposition -> Fun ;
+
+  funHuman    : Str -> Fun ;  -- the father/mistress/daddy of 
+  funNonhuman : Str -> Fun ;  -- the successor/address/copy of 
+
+-- Proper names, with their regular genitive.
+
+  pnReg : (John : Str) -> PN ;          -- John, John's
+
+-- The most common cases on the top level havee shortcuts.
+-- The regular "y"/"s" variation is taken into account in $CN$.
+
+  cnNonhuman : Str -> CN ;
+  cnHuman    : Str -> CN ;
+  npReg      : Str -> NP ;
+
+-- In some cases, you may want to make a complex $CN$ into a function.
+
+  mkFunCN  : CN -> Preposition -> Fun ;
+  funOfCN : CN -> Fun ;
+
+--2 Adjectives
+
+-- Non-comparison one-place adjectives just have one form.
+
+  mkAdj1 : (even : Str) -> Adj1 ;
+ 
+-- Two-place adjectives need a preposition as second argument.
+
+  mkAdj2 : (divisible, by : Str) -> Adj2 ;
+
+-- Comparison adjectives have three forms. The common irregular
+-- cases are ones ending with "y" and a consonant that is duplicated.
+
+  mkAdjDeg : (good,better,best : Str) -> AdjDeg ;
+
+  aReg        : (long  : Str) -> AdjDeg ;      -- long, longer, longest
+  aHappy      : (happy : Str) -> AdjDeg ;      -- happy, happier, happiest
+  aFat        : (fat   : Str) -> AdjDeg ;      -- fat, fatter, fattest
+  aRidiculous : (ridiculous : Str) -> AdjDeg ; -- -/more/most ridiculous
+
+-- On top level, there are adjectival phrases. The most common case is
+-- just to use a one-place adjective.
+
+  apReg : Str -> AP ;
+
+
+--2 Verbs
+--
+-- The fragment now has all verb forms, except the gerund/present participle.
+-- Except for "be", the worst case needs four forms: the infinitive and
+-- the third person singular present, the past indicative, and the past participle.
+
+  mkV   : (go, goes, went, gone : Str) -> V ;
+
+  vReg  : (walk : Str) -> V ;  -- walk, walks
+  vKiss : (kiss : Str) -> V ;  -- kiss, kisses
+  vFly  : (fly  : Str) -> V ;  -- fly, flies
+  vGo   : (go   : Str) -> V ;  -- go, goes (= vKiss !)
+
+-- This generic function recognizes the special cases where the last
+-- character is "y", "s", or "z". It is not right for "finish" and "convey".
+
+  vGen : Str -> V ; -- walk/kiss/fly
+
+-- The verbs "be" and "have" are special.
+
+  vBe   : V ;
+  vHave : V ;
+
+-- Verbs with a particle.
+
+  vPart    : (go, goes, went, gone, up : Str) -> V ;
+  vPartReg : (get,      up : Str) -> V ;    
+
+-- Two-place verbs, and the special case with direct object.
+-- Notice that a particle can already be included in $V$.
+
+  mkTV  : V -> Str -> TV ;              -- look for, kill
+
+  tvGen    : (look, for : Str) -> TV ;  -- look for, talk about
+  tvDir    : V                 -> TV ;  -- switch off
+  tvGenDir : (kill      : Str) -> TV ;  -- kill
+
+-- Regular two-place verbs with a particle.
+
+  tvPartReg : Str -> Str -> Str -> TV ; -- get, along, with
+
+-- The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are
+-- hidden from the document.
+--.
+
+  human = Hum ; 
+  nonhuman = NoHum ;
+  -- singular defined in types.Eng
+  -- plural defined in types.Eng
+
+  nominative = Nom ;
+
+  mkN = \man,men,man's,men's,g -> 
+    mkNoun man men man's men's ** {g = g ; lock_N = <>} ;
+  nReg a g = addGenN nounReg a g ;
+  nKiss n g = addGenN nounS n g ;
+  nFly = \fly -> addGenN nounY (Predef.tk 1 fly) ;
+  nMan = \man,men -> mkN man men (man + "'s") (men + "'s") ;
+  nHero = nKiss ;
+  nSheep = \sheep -> nMan sheep sheep ;
+
+  nHuman = \s -> nGen s Hum ;
+  nNonhuman = \s -> nGen s NoHum ;
+
+  nGen : Str -> Gender -> N = \fly,g -> let {
+      fl  = Predef.tk 1 fly ; 
+      y   = Predef.dp 1 fly ; 
+      eqy = ifTok (Str -> Gender -> N) y
+    } in
+    eqy "y" nFly  (
+    eqy "s" nKiss (
+    eqy "z" nKiss (
+            nReg))) fly g ;
+
+  mkFun = \n,p -> n ** {lock_Fun = <> ; s2 = p} ;
+  funNonhuman = \s -> mkFun (nNonhuman s) "of" ;
+  funHuman = \s -> mkFun (nHuman s) "of" ;
+
+  pnReg n = nameReg n ** {lock_PN = <>} ;
+
+  cnNonhuman = \s -> UseN (nGen s nonhuman) ;
+  cnHuman = \s -> UseN (nGen s human) ;
+  npReg = \s -> UsePN (pnReg s) ;  
+
+  mkFunCN = \n,p -> n ** {lock_Fun = <> ; s2 = p} ;
+  funOfCN = \n -> mkFunCN n "of" ;
+
+  addGenN : (Str -> CommonNoun) -> Str -> Gender -> N = \f -> 
+    \s,g -> f s ** {g = g ; lock_N = <>} ;
+
+  mkAdj1 a = simpleAdj a ** {lock_Adj1 = <>} ;
+  mkAdj2 = \s,p -> simpleAdj s ** {s2 = p} ** {lock_Adj2 = <>} ;
+  mkAdjDeg a b c = mkAdjDegr a b c ** {lock_AdjDeg = <>} ;
+  aReg a = adjDegrReg a ** {lock_AdjDeg = <>} ;
+  aHappy = \happy -> adjDegrY (Predef.tk 1 happy) ** {lock_AdjDeg = <>} ;
+  aFat = \fat -> let {fatt = fat + Predef.dp 1 fat} in 
+         mkAdjDeg fat (fatt + "er") (fatt + "est") ;
+  aRidiculous a = adjDegrLong a ** {lock_AdjDeg = <>} ;
+  apReg = \s -> AdjP1 (mkAdj1 s) ;
+
+  mkV = \go,goes,went,gone -> verbNoPart (mkVerbP3 go goes went gone) ** 
+    {lock_V = <>} ;
+  vReg = \walk -> mkV walk (walk + "s") (walk + "ed") (walk + "ed") ;
+  vKiss = \kiss -> mkV kiss (kiss + "es") (kiss + "ed") (kiss + "ed") ;
+  vFly = \cry -> let {cr = Predef.tk 1 cry} in 
+                   mkV cry (cr + "ies") (cr + "ied") (cr + "ied") ;
+  vGo = vKiss ;
+
+  vGen = \fly -> let {
+      fl  = Predef.tk 1 fly ; 
+      y   = Predef.dp 1 fly ; 
+      eqy = ifTok (Str -> V) y
+    } in
+    eqy "y" vFly  (
+    eqy "s" vKiss (
+    eqy "z" vKiss (
+            vReg))) fly ;
+
+  vPart = \go, goes, went, gone, up -> 
+    verbPart (mkVerbP3 go goes went gone) up ** {lock_V = <>} ;
+  vPartReg = \get, up -> 
+    verbPart (regVerbP3 get) up  ** {lock_V = <>} ;
+
+  mkTV = \v,p -> v ** {lock_TV = <> ; s3 = p} ;
+  tvPartReg = \get, along, to -> mkTV (vPartReg get along) to ;
+
+  vBe = verbBe  ** {s1 = [] ; lock_V = <>} ;
+  vHave = verbP3Have  ** {s1 = [] ; lock_V = <>} ;
+
+  tvGen = \s,p -> mkTV (vGen s) p ;
+  tvDir = \v -> mkTV v [] ;
+  tvGenDir = \s -> tvDir (vGen s) ;
+
+} ;

grammars/resource/nenglish/Predication.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+
+--1 A Small Predication Library
+--
+-- (c) Aarne Ranta 2003 under Gnu GPL.
+--
+-- This library is built on a language-independent API of
+-- resource grammars. It has a common part, the type signatures
+-- (defined here), and language-dependent parts. The user of
+-- the library should only have to look at the type signatures.
+
+resource Predication = open English in {
+
+-- We first define a set of predication patterns.
+
+oper
+  predV1 : V -> NP -> S ;             -- one-place verb: "John walks"
+  predV2 : TV -> NP -> NP -> S ;      -- two-place verb: "John loves Mary"
+  predVColl : V -> NP -> NP -> S ;    -- collective verb: "John and Mary fight"
+  predA1 : Adj1 -> NP -> S ;          -- one-place adjective: "John is old"
+  predA2 : Adj2 -> NP -> NP -> S ;    -- two-place adj: "John is married to Mary"
+  predAComp : AdjDeg -> NP -> NP -> S ; -- compar adj: "John is older than Mary"
+  predAColl : Adj1 -> NP -> NP -> S ; -- collective adj: "John and Mary are married"
+  predN1 : N -> NP -> S ;             -- one-place noun: "John is a man"
+  predN2 : Fun -> NP -> NP -> S ;     -- two-place noun: "John is a lover of Mary"
+  predNColl : N -> NP -> NP -> S ;    -- collective noun: "John and Mary are lovers"
+
+-- Individual-valued function applications.
+
+  appFun1 : Fun -> NP -> NP ;          -- one-place function: "the successor of x"
+  appFunColl : Fun -> NP -> NP -> NP ; -- collective function: "the sum of x and y"
+
+-- Families of types, expressed by common nouns depending on arguments.
+
+  appFam1 : Fun -> NP -> CN ;          -- one-place family: "divisor of x"
+  appFamColl : Fun -> NP -> NP -> CN ; -- collective family: "path between x and y"
+
+-- Type constructor, similar to a family except that the argument is a type.
+
+  constrTyp1 : Fun -> CN -> CN ;
+
+-- Logical connectives on two sentences.
+
+  conjS : S -> S -> S ;
+  disjS : S -> S -> S ;
+  implS : S -> S -> S ;
+
+-- As an auxiliary, we need two-place conjunction of names ("John and Mary"), 
+-- used in collective predication.
+
+  conjNP : NP -> NP -> NP ;
+
+
+-----------------------------
+
+---- what follows should be an implementation of the preceding
+
+oper
+  predV1 = \F, x -> PredVP x (PosV F) ;
+  predV2 = \F, x, y -> PredVP x (PosTV F y) ;
+  predVColl = \F, x, y -> PredVP (conjNP x y) (PosV F) ;
+  predA1 = \F, x -> PredVP x (PosA (AdjP1 F)) ;
+  predA2 = \F, x, y -> PredVP x (PosA (ComplAdj F y)) ;
+  predAComp = \F, x, y -> PredVP x (PosA (ComparAdjP F y)) ;
+  predAColl = \F, x, y -> PredVP (conjNP x y) (PosA (AdjP1 F)) ;
+  predN1 = \F, x -> PredVP x (PosCN (UseN F)) ;
+  predN2 = \F, x, y -> PredVP x (PosCN (AppFun F y)) ;
+  predNColl = \F, x, y -> PredVP (conjNP x y) (PosCN (UseN F)) ;
+
+  appFun1 = \f, x -> DefOneNP (AppFun f x) ;
+  appFunColl = \f, x, y -> DefOneNP (AppFun f (conjNP x y)) ;
+
+  appFam1 = \F, x -> AppFun F x ;
+  appFamColl = \F, x, y -> AppFun F (conjNP x y) ;
+
+  conjS = \A, B -> ConjS AndConj (TwoS A B) ;
+  disjS = \A, B -> ConjS OrConj (TwoS A B) ;
+  implS = \A, B -> SubjS IfSubj A B ;
+
+  constrTyp1 = \F, A -> AppFun F (IndefManyNP A) ;
+
+  conjNP = \x, y -> ConjNP AndConj (TwoNP x y) ;
+
+} ;

grammars/resource/nenglish/ResEng.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+--# -path=.:../nabstract:../../prelude
+
+resource ResEng = reuse StructuralEng ;

grammars/resource/nenglish/StructuralEng.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+--# -path=.:../nabstract:../../prelude
+
+--1 The Top-Level English Resource Grammar: Structural Words
+--
+-- Aarne Ranta 2002 -- 2003
+--
+concrete StructuralEng of Structural = 
+                      CombinationsEng ** open Prelude, SyntaxEng in {
+ lin
+  INP    = pronI ;
+  ThouNP = pronYouSg ;
+  HeNP   = pronHe ;
+  SheNP  = pronShe ;
+  ItNP   = pronIt ;
+  WeNP   = pronWe ;
+  YeNP   = pronYouPl ;
+  YouNP  = pronYouSg ;
+  TheyNP = pronThey ;
+
+  EveryDet = everyDet ; 
+  AllDet   = allDet ; 
+  WhichDet = whichDet ;
+  MostDet  = mostDet ;
+  SomeDet  = mkDeterminer Sg "some" ;
+  SomesDet = mkDeterminer Pl "some" ;
+  AnyDet   = mkDeterminer Sg "any" ;
+  AnysDet  = mkDeterminer Pl "any" ;
+  NoDet    = mkDeterminer Sg "no" ;
+  NosDet   = mkDeterminer Pl "no" ;
+  ManyDet  = mkDeterminer Sg "many" ;
+  MuchDet  = mkDeterminer Sg ["a lot of"] ; ---
+  ThisDet  = mkDeterminer Sg "this" ;
+  TheseDet = mkDeterminer Pl "these" ;
+  ThatDet  = mkDeterminer Sg "that" ;
+  ThoseDet = mkDeterminer Pl "those" ;
+
+  ThisNP = nameNounPhrase (nameReg "this") ;
+  TheseNP = nameNounPhrase (nameReg "these") ;
+  ThatNP = nameNounPhrase (nameReg "that") ;
+  ThoseNP = nameNounPhrase (nameReg "those") ;
+
+  EverybodyNP = nameNounPhrase (nameReg "everybody") ;
+  SomebodyNP = nameNounPhrase (nameReg "somebody") ;
+  NobodyNP = nameNounPhrase (nameReg "nobody") ;
+  EverythingNP = nameNounPhrase (nameReg "everything") ;
+  SomethingNP = nameNounPhrase (nameReg "something") ;
+  NothingNP = nameNounPhrase (nameReg "nothing") ;
+
+  HowIAdv = ss "how" ;
+  WhenIAdv = ss "when" ;
+  WhereIAdv = ss "where" ;
+  WhyIAdv = ss "why" ;
+  EverywhereNP = advPost "everywhere" ;
+  SomewhereNP = advPost "somewhere" ;
+  NowhereNP = advPost "nowhere" ;
+
+  AndConj = ss "and" ** {n = Pl} ;
+  OrConj = ss "or" ** {n = Sg} ;
+  BothAnd = sd2 "both" "and" ** {n = Pl} ;
+  EitherOr = sd2 "either" "or" ** {n = Sg} ;
+  NeitherNor = sd2 "neither" "nor" ** {n = Sg} ;
+  IfSubj = ss "if" ;
+  WhenSubj = ss "when" ;
+  AlthoughSubj = ss "although" ;
+
+  PhrYes = ss "Yes." ;
+  PhrNo = ss "No." ;
+
+  VeryAdv = ss "very" ;
+  TooAdv = ss "too" ;
+  AlmostAdv = ss "almost" ;
+  QuiteAdv = ss "quite" ;
+  OtherwiseAdv = ss "otherwise" ;
+  ThereforeAdv = ss "therefore" ;
+
+  InPrep = ss "in" ;
+  OnPrep = ss "on" ;
+  ToPrep = ss "to" ;
+  ThroughPrep = ss "through" ;
+  AbovePrep = ss "above" ;
+  UnderPrep = ss "under" ;
+  InFrontPrep = ss ["in front of"] ;
+  BehindPrep = ss "behind" ;
+  BetweenPrep = ss "between" ;
+  FromPrep = ss "from" ;
+  BeforePrep = ss "before" ;
+  DuringPrep = ss "during" ;
+  AfterPrep = ss "after" ;
+  WithPrep = ss "with" ;
+  WithoutPrep = ss "without" ;
+  ByMeansPrep = ss "by" ;
+  AgentPrep = ss "by" ;
+
+}

grammars/resource/nenglish/SyntaxEng.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,931 @@
+--1 A Small English Resource Syntax
+--
+-- Aarne Ranta 2002
+--
+-- This resource grammar contains definitions needed to construct 
+-- indicative, interrogative, and imperative sentences in English.
+--
+-- The following files are presupposed:
+
+resource SyntaxEng = MorphoEng ** open Prelude, (CO = Coordination) in {
+
+--2 Common Nouns
+--
+-- Simple common nouns are defined as the type $CommNoun$ in $morpho.Deu.gf$.
+
+--3 Common noun phrases
+
+-- To the common nouns of morphology,
+-- we add natural gender (human/nonhuman) which is needed in syntactic
+-- combinations (e.g. "man who runs" - "program which runs").
+
+oper
+  CommNoun = CommonNoun ** {g : Gender} ;
+
+  CommNounPhrase = CommNoun ;
+
+  noun2CommNounPhrase : CommNoun -> CommNounPhrase = \man ->
+    man ;
+
+  cnGen : CommonNoun -> Gender -> CommNoun = \cn,g ->
+    cn ** {g = g} ;
+
+  cnHum : CommonNoun -> CommNoun = \cn ->
+    cnGen cn Hum ;
+  cnNoHum : CommonNoun -> CommNoun = \cn ->
+    cnGen cn NoHum ;
+
+--2 Noun phrases
+--
+-- The worst case is pronouns, which have inflection in the possessive forms. 
+-- Proper names are a special case.
+
+  NounPhrase : Type = Pronoun ;
+
+  nameNounPhrase : ProperName -> NounPhrase = \john -> 
+    {s = \\c => john.s ! toCase c ; n = Sg ; p = P3} ;
+
+--2 Determiners
+--
+-- Determiners are inflected according to the nouns they determine.
+-- The determiner is not inflected.
+  Determiner : Type = {s : Str ; n : Number} ;
+
+  detNounPhrase : Determiner -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \every, man -> 
+    {s = \\c => every.s ++ man.s ! every.n ! toCase c ; 
+     n = every.n ; 
+     p = P3
+    } ;
+
+  mkDeterminer : Number -> Str -> Determiner = \n,det -> 
+    {s = det ; 
+     n = n
+    } ;
+
+  everyDet = mkDeterminer Sg "every" ;
+  allDet   = mkDeterminer Pl "all" ;
+  mostDet  = mkDeterminer Pl "most" ;
+  aDet     = mkDeterminer Sg artIndef ;
+  plDet    = mkDeterminer Pl [] ;
+  theSgDet = mkDeterminer Sg "the" ;
+  thePlDet = mkDeterminer Pl "the" ;
+  anySgDet = mkDeterminer Sg "any" ;
+  anyPlDet = mkDeterminer Pl "any" ;
+
+  whichSgDet = mkDeterminer Sg "which" ;
+  whichPlDet = mkDeterminer Pl "which" ;
+
+  whichDet = whichSgDet ; --- API
+
+  indefNoun : Number -> CommNoun -> Str = \n,man -> 
+    (indefNounPhrase n man).s ! NomP ;
+
+  indefNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n,man -> 
+    {s = \\c => case n of {
+                       Sg => artIndef ++ man.s ! n ! toCase c ; 
+                       Pl => man.s ! n ! toCase c
+                       } ;
+     n = n ; p = P3
+    } ;
+
+  defNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n,car -> 
+    {s = \\c => artDef ++ car.s ! n ! toCase c ; n = n ; p = P3} ;
+
+-- Genitives of noun phrases can be used like determiners, to build noun phrases.
+-- The number argument makes the difference between "my house" - "my houses".
+--
+-- We have the variation "the car of John / the car of John's / John's car"
+
+  npGenDet : Number -> NounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = 
+    \n,john,car -> 
+      {s = \\c => variants {
+             artDef ++ car.s ! n ! Nom ++ "of" ++ john.s ! GenSP ; 
+             john.s ! GenP ++ car.s ! n ! toCase c
+             } ;
+       n = n ; 
+       p = P3
+      } ;
+
+-- *Bare plural noun phrases* like "men", "good cars", are built without a 
+-- determiner word.
+
+  plurDet : CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \cn -> 
+    {s = \\c => cn.s ! plural ! toCase c ; 
+     p = P3 ; 
+     n = Pl
+    } ;
+
+-- Constructions like "the idea that two is even" are formed at the
+-- first place as common nouns, so that one can also have "a suggestion that...".
+
+  nounThatSentence : CommNounPhrase -> Sentence -> CommNounPhrase = \idea,x -> 
+    {s = \\n,c => idea.s ! n ! c ++ "that" ++ x.s ; 
+     g = idea.g
+    } ;
+
+
+--2 Adjectives
+--
+-- Adjectival phrases have a parameter $p$ telling if they are prefixed ($True$) or 
+-- postfixed (complex APs). 
+
+  AdjPhrase : Type = Adjective ** {p : Bool} ;
+
+  adj2adjPhrase : Adjective -> AdjPhrase = \new -> new ** {p = True} ;
+
+  simpleAdjPhrase : Str -> AdjPhrase = \French ->
+    adj2adjPhrase (simpleAdj French) ;
+
+
+--3 Comparison adjectives
+--
+-- Each of the comparison forms has a characteristic use:
+--
+-- Positive forms are used alone, as adjectival phrases ("big").
+
+  positAdjPhrase : AdjDegr -> AdjPhrase = \big -> 
+    adj2adjPhrase (ss (big.s ! Pos)) ;
+
+-- Comparative forms are used with an object of comparison, as
+-- adjectival phrases ("bigger then you").
+
+  comparAdjPhrase : AdjDegr -> NounPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \big, you ->
+    {s = big.s ! Comp ++ "than" ++ you.s ! NomP ; 
+     p = False
+    } ;
+
+-- Superlative forms are used with a modified noun, picking out the
+-- maximal representative of a domain ("the biggest house").
+
+  superlNounPhrase : AdjDegr -> CommNoun -> NounPhrase = \big, house ->
+    {s = \\c => "the" ++ big.s ! Sup ++ house.s ! Sg ! toCase c ; 
+     n = Sg ; 
+     p = P3
+    } ;
+
+
+--3 Two-place adjectives
+--
+-- A two-place adjective is an adjective with a preposition used before
+-- the complement.
+
+  Preposition = Str ;
+
+  AdjCompl = Adjective ** {s2 : Preposition} ;
+
+  complAdj : AdjCompl -> NounPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \related,john ->
+    {s = related.s ++ related.s2 ++ john.s ! AccP ; 
+     p = False
+    } ;
+
+
+--3 Modification of common nouns
+--
+-- The two main functions of adjective are in predication ("John is old")
+-- and in modification ("an old man"). Predication will be defined
+-- later, in the chapter on verbs.
+--
+-- Modification must pay attention to pre- and post-noun
+-- adjectives: "big car"/"car bigger than X"
+
+  modCommNounPhrase : AdjPhrase -> CommNounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase = \big, car -> 
+    {s = \\n => if_then_else (Case => Str) big.p 
+           (\\c => big.s ++ car.s ! n ! c)
+           (table {Nom => car.s ! n ! Nom ++ big.s ; Gen => variants {}}) ;
+     g = car.g
+    } ;
+
+
+--2 Function expressions
+
+-- A function expression is a common noun together with the
+-- preposition prefixed to its argument ("mother of x").
+-- The type is analogous to two-place adjectives and transitive verbs.
+
+  Function = CommNounPhrase ** {s2 : Preposition} ;
+
+-- The application of a function gives, in the first place, a common noun:
+-- "mother/mothers of John". From this, other rules of the resource grammar 
+-- give noun phrases, such as "the mother of John", "the mothers of John",
+-- "the mothers of John and Mary", and "the mother of John and Mary" (the
+-- latter two corresponding to distributive and collective functions,
+-- respectively). Semantics will eventually tell when each
+-- of the readings is meaningful.
+
+  appFunComm : Function -> NounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase = \mother,john -> 
+    {s = \\n => table {
+            Gen => nonExist ; --- ?
+            _ => mother.s ! n ! Nom ++ mother.s2 ++ john.s ! GenSP 
+            } ;
+     g = mother.g
+    } ;
+
+-- It is possible to use a function word as a common noun; the semantics is
+-- often existential or indexical.
+
+  funAsCommNounPhrase : Function -> CommNounPhrase = 
+    noun2CommNounPhrase ;
+
+-- The following is an aggregate corresponding to the original function application
+-- producing "John's mother" and "the mother of John". It does not appear in the
+-- resource grammar API any longer.
+
+  appFun : Bool -> Function -> NounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \coll, mother,john -> 
+    let {n = john.n ; nf = if_then_else Number coll Sg n} in 
+    variants {
+      defNounPhrase nf (appFunComm mother john) ;
+      npGenDet nf john mother
+      } ;
+
+-- The commonest case is functions with the preposition  "of".
+
+  funOf : CommNoun -> Function = \mother -> 
+    mother ** {s2 = "of"} ;
+
+  funOfReg : Str -> Gender -> Function = \mother,g -> 
+    funOf (nounReg mother ** {g = g}) ;
+
+-- Two-place functions add one argument place.
+
+  Function2 = Function ** {s3 : Preposition} ;
+
+-- There application starts by filling the first place.
+
+  appFun2 : Function2 -> NounPhrase -> Function = \train, paris ->
+    {s  = \\n,c => train.s ! n ! c ++ train.s2 ++ paris.s ! AccP ;
+     g  = train.g ;
+     s2 = train.s3
+    } ;
+
+
+--2 Verbs
+--
+--3 Verb phrases
+--
+-- Verb phrases are discontinuous: the two parts of a verb phrase are
+-- (s) an inflected verb, (s2) infinitive and complement.
+-- For instance: "doesn't" - "walk" ; "isn't" - "old" ; "is" - "a man"
+-- There's also a parameter telling if the verb is an auxiliary:
+-- this is needed in question.
+
+  VerbPhrase = VerbP3 ** {s2 : Number => Str ; isAux : Bool} ;
+
+-- From the inflection table, we selecting the finite form as function 
+-- of person and number:
+
+  indicVerb : VerbP3 -> Person -> Number -> Str = \v,p,n -> case n of {
+    Sg => v.s ! Indic p ;
+    Pl => v.s ! Indic P2
+    } ;
+
+-- A simple verb can be made into a verb phrase with an empty complement.
+-- There are two versions, depending on if we want to negate the verb.
+-- N.B. negation is *not* a function applicable to a verb phrase, since
+-- double negations with "don't" are not grammatical.
+
+  predVerb : Bool -> Verb -> VerbPhrase = \b,walk ->
+    if_then_else VerbPhrase b 
+      {s = \\v => walk.s ! v ++ walk.s1 ;
+       s2 = \\_ => [] ; 
+       isAux = False
+      }
+      {s  = \\v => contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v) ; 
+       s2 = \\_ => walk.s ! InfImp ++ walk.s1 ;
+       isAux = True
+      } ;
+
+-- Sometimes we want to extract the verb part of a verb phrase.
+
+  verbOfPhrase : VerbPhrase -> VerbP3 = \v -> {s = v.s} ;
+
+-- Verb phrases can also be formed from adjectives ("is old"),
+-- common nouns ("is a man"), and noun phrases ("ist John").
+-- The third rule is overgenerating: "is every man" has to be ruled out
+-- on semantic grounds.
+
+  predAdjective : Bool -> Adjective -> VerbPhrase = \b,old ->
+    {s = beOrNotBe b ;
+     s2 = \\_ => old.s ;
+     isAux = True
+    } ;
+
+  predCommNoun : Bool -> CommNoun -> VerbPhrase = \b,man ->
+    {s = beOrNotBe b ;
+     s2 = \\n => indefNoun n man ;
+     isAux = True
+    } ;
+
+  predNounPhrase : Bool -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase = \b,john ->
+    {s = beOrNotBe b ;
+     s2 = \\_ => john.s ! NomP ;
+     isAux = True
+    } ;
+
+-- We use an auxiliary giving all forms of "be".
+
+  beOrNotBe : Bool -> (VForm => Str) = \b -> 
+    if_then_else (VForm => Str) b 
+      verbBe.s
+      (table {
+        InfImp   => contractNot "do" ++ "be" ;
+        Indic P1 => "am" ++ "not" ;
+        v        => contractNot (verbBe.s ! v)
+        }) ;
+
+--3 Transitive verbs
+--
+-- Transitive verbs are verbs with a preposition for the complement,
+-- in analogy with two-place adjectives and functions.
+-- One might prefer to use the term "2-place verb", since
+-- "transitive" traditionally means that the inherent preposition is empty.
+-- Such a verb is one with a *direct object*.
+
+  TransVerb : Type = Verb ** {s3 : Preposition} ;
+
+-- The rule for using transitive verbs is the complementization rule.
+-- Particles produce free variation: before or after the complement 
+-- ("I switch on the TV" / "I switch the TV on").
+
+  complTransVerb : Bool -> TransVerb -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase = 
+    \b,lookat,john ->
+    let {lookatjohn = bothWays lookat.s1 (lookat.s3 ++ john.s ! AccP)} in
+    if_then_else VerbPhrase b 
+      {s = lookat.s ; 
+       s2 = \\_ => lookatjohn ; 
+       isAux = False}
+      {s = \\v => contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v) ; 
+       s2 = \\_ => lookat.s ! InfImp ++ lookatjohn ;
+       isAux = True} ;
+
+
+-- Verbs that take direct object and a  particle:
+  mkTransVerbPart : VerbP3 -> Str -> TransVerb = \turn,off -> 
+    {s = turn.s ; s1 = off ; s3 = []} ;
+
+-- Verbs that take prepositional object, no particle:
+  mkTransVerb : VerbP3 -> Str -> TransVerb = \wait,for -> 
+    {s = wait.s ; s1 = [] ; s3 = for} ;
+
+-- Verbs that take direct object, no particle:
+  mkTransVerbDir : VerbP3 -> TransVerb = \love -> 
+    mkTransVerbPart love [] ;
+
+-- Transitive verbs with accusative objects can be used passively. 
+-- The function does not check that the verb is transitive.
+-- Therefore, the function can also be used for "he is swum", etc.
+-- The syntax is the same as for adjectival predication.
+
+  passVerb : Bool -> Verb -> VerbPhrase = \b,love ->
+    predAdjective b (adj2adjPhrase (ss (love.s ! PPart))) ;
+
+-- Transitive verbs can be used elliptically as verbs. The semantics
+-- is left to applications. The definition is trivial, due to record
+-- subtyping.
+
+  transAsVerb : TransVerb -> Verb = \love -> 
+    love ;
+
+-- *Ditransitive verbs* are verbs with three argument places.
+-- We treat so far only the rule in which the ditransitive
+-- verb takes both complements to form a verb phrase.
+
+  DitransVerb = TransVerb ** {s4 : Preposition} ; 
+
+  mkDitransVerb : Verb -> Preposition -> Preposition -> DitransVerb = \v,p1,p2 -> 
+    v ** {s3 = p1 ; s4 = p2} ;
+
+  complDitransVerb : 
+    Bool -> DitransVerb -> NounPhrase -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase = 
+    \b,give,you,beer ->
+      let {
+        youbeer = give.s1 ++ give.s3 ++ you.s ! AccP ++ give.s4 ++ beer.s ! AccP
+      } in
+      if_then_else VerbPhrase b 
+      {s = give.s ; 
+       s2 = \\_ => youbeer ;
+       isAux = False
+      }
+      {s = \\v => contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v) ; 
+       s2 = \\_ => give.s ! InfImp ++ youbeer ;
+       isAux = True
+      } ;
+
+
+--2 Adverbials
+--
+-- Adverbials are not inflected (we ignore comparison, and treat
+-- compared adverbials as separate expressions; this could be done another way).
+-- We distinguish between post- and pre-verbal adverbs.
+
+  Adverb : Type = SS ** {p : Bool} ;
+
+  advPre  : Str -> Adverb = \seldom -> ss seldom ** {p = False} ;
+  advPost : Str -> Adverb = \well   -> ss well   ** {p = True} ;
+
+-- N.B. this rule generates the cyclic parsing rule $VP#2 ::= VP#2$
+-- and cannot thus be parsed.
+
+  adVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Adverb -> VerbPhrase = \sings, well ->
+    let {postp = orB well.p sings.isAux} in
+    {
+     s = \\v => (if_then_else Str postp [] well.s) ++ sings.s ! v ;
+     s2 = \\n => sings.s2 ! n ++ (if_then_else Str postp well.s []) ;
+     isAux = sings.isAux
+    } ;
+
+  advAdjPhrase : SS -> AdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \very, good ->
+    {s = very.s ++ good.s ;
+     p = good.p
+    } ;
+
+-- Adverbials are typically generated by prefixing prepositions.
+-- The rule for creating locative noun phrases by the preposition "in"
+-- is a little shaky, since other prepositions may be preferred ("on", "at").
+
+  prepPhrase : Preposition -> NounPhrase -> Adverb = \on, it ->
+    advPost (on ++ it.s ! AccP) ;
+
+  locativeNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> Adverb = 
+    prepPhrase "in" ;
+
+-- This is a source of the "mann with a telescope" ambiguity, and may produce
+-- strange things, like "cars always" (while "cars today" is OK).
+-- Semantics will have to make finer distinctions among adverbials.
+--
+-- N.B. the genitive case created in this way would not make sense.
+
+  advCommNounPhrase : CommNounPhrase -> Adverb -> CommNounPhrase = \car,today ->
+   {s = \\n => table {
+      Nom => car.s ! n ! Nom ++ today.s ; 
+      Gen => nonExist
+      } ;
+    g = car.g
+   } ;
+
+
+--2 Sentences
+--
+-- Sentences are not inflected in this fragment of English without tense.
+
+  Sentence : Type = SS ;
+
+-- This is the traditional $S -> NP VP$ rule. It takes care of
+-- agreement between subject and verb. Recall that the VP may already
+-- contain negation. 
+
+  predVerbPhrase : NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Sentence = \john,walks ->
+    ss (john.s ! NomP ++ indicVerb (verbOfPhrase walks) john.p john.n ++ 
+        walks.s2 ! john.n) ;
+
+
+-- This is a macro for simultaneous predication and complementization.
+
+  predTransVerb : Bool -> NounPhrase -> TransVerb -> NounPhrase -> Sentence = 
+    \b,you,see,john -> 
+    predVerbPhrase you (complTransVerb b see john) ;
+
+
+--3 Sentence-complement verbs
+--
+-- Sentence-complement verbs take sentences as complements.
+
+  SentenceVerb : Type = Verb ;
+
+-- To generate "says that John walks" / "doesn't say that John walks":
+
+  complSentVerb : Bool -> SentenceVerb -> Sentence -> VerbPhrase = 
+    \b,say,johnruns ->
+    let {thatjohnruns = optStr "that" ++ johnruns.s} in
+    if_then_else VerbPhrase b 
+      {s  = say.s ; 
+       s2 = \\_ => thatjohnruns ; 
+       isAux = False}
+      {s  = \\v => contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v) ; 
+       s2 = \\_ => say.s ! InfImp ++ thatjohnruns ;
+       isAux = True} ;
+
+
+--2 Sentences missing noun phrases
+--
+-- This is one instance of Gazdar's *slash categories*, corresponding to his
+-- $S/NP$.
+-- We cannot have - nor would we want to have - a productive slash-category former.
+-- Perhaps a handful more will be needed.
+--
+-- Notice that the slash category has a similar relation to sentences as
+-- transitive verbs have to verbs: it's like a *sentence taking a complement*.
+-- However, we need something more to distinguish its use in direct questions:
+-- not just "you see" but ("whom") "do you see".
+--
+-- The particle always follows the verb, but the preposition can fly:
+-- "whom you make it up with" / "with whom you make it up".
+
+  SentenceSlashNounPhrase = {s : Bool => Str ; s2 : Preposition} ;
+
+  slashTransVerb : Bool -> NounPhrase -> TransVerb -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase = 
+    \b,You,lookat ->
+    let {you   = You.s ! NomP ;
+         looks = indicVerb {s = lookat.s} You.p You.n ;
+         look  = lookat.s ! InfImp ;
+         do    = indicVerb verbP3Do You.p You.n ;
+         dont  = contractNot do ;
+         up    = lookat.s1
+        } in
+    {s  = table {
+            True  => if_then_else Str b do dont ++ you ++ look ++ up ; 
+            False => you ++ if_then_else Str b looks (dont ++ look) ++ up
+            } ;
+     s2 = lookat.s3   
+    } ;
+
+
+--2 Relative pronouns and relative clauses
+--
+-- As described in $types.Eng.gf$, relative pronouns are inflected in 
+-- gender (human/nonhuman), number, and case.
+--
+-- We get the simple relative pronoun ("who"/"which"/"whom"/"whose"/"that"/$""$)
+-- from $morpho.Eng.gf$.
+
+  identRelPron : RelPron = relPron ;
+
+  funRelPron : Function -> RelPron -> RelPron = \mother,which -> 
+    {s = \\g,n,c => "the" ++ mother.s ! n ! Nom ++ 
+                    mother.s2 ++ which.s ! g ! n ! GenSP
+    } ;
+
+-- Relative clauses can be formed from both verb phrases ("who walks") and
+-- slash expressions ("whom you see", "on which you sit" / "that you sit on"). 
+
+  RelClause : Type = {s : Gender => Number => Str} ;
+
+  relVerbPhrase : RelPron -> VerbPhrase -> RelClause = \who,walks ->
+    {s = \\g, n => who.s ! g ! n ! NomP ++ 
+                   indicVerb (verbOfPhrase walks) P3 n ++ walks.s2 ! n
+    } ;
+
+  relSlash : RelPron -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase -> RelClause = \who,yousee ->
+    {s = \\g,n => 
+           let {youSee = yousee.s ! False} in
+           variants {
+             who.s ! g ! n ! AccP ++ youSee ++ yousee.s2 ;
+             yousee.s2 ++ who.s ! g ! n ! GenSP ++ youSee
+             }
+    } ;
+
+-- A 'degenerate' relative clause is the one often used in mathematics, e.g.
+-- "number x such that x is even".
+
+  relSuch : Sentence -> RelClause = \A ->
+    {s = \\_,_ => "such" ++ "that" ++ A.s} ;
+
+-- The main use of relative clauses is to modify common nouns.
+-- The result is a common noun, out of which noun phrases can be formed
+-- by determiners. No comma is used before these relative clause.
+
+  modRelClause : CommNounPhrase -> RelClause -> CommNounPhrase = \man,whoruns ->
+    {s = \\n,c => man.s ! n ! c ++ whoruns.s ! man.g ! n ;
+     g = man.g
+    } ;
+
+
+--2 Interrogative pronouns
+--
+-- If relative pronouns are adjective-like, interrogative pronouns are
+-- noun-phrase-like. 
+
+  IntPron : Type = {s : NPForm => Str ; n : Number} ; 
+
+-- In analogy with relative pronouns, we have a rule for applying a function
+-- to a relative pronoun to create a new one. 
+
+  funIntPron : Function -> IntPron -> IntPron = \mother,which -> 
+    {s = \\c => "the" ++ mother.s ! which.n ! Nom ++ mother.s2 ++ which.s ! GenSP ;
+     n = which.n
+    } ;
+
+-- There is a variety of simple interrogative pronouns:
+-- "which house", "who", "what".
+
+  nounIntPron : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> IntPron = \n, car ->
+    {s = \\c => "which" ++ car.s ! n ! toCase c ; 
+     n = n
+    } ; 
+
+  intPronWho : Number -> IntPron = \num -> {
+    s = table {
+      NomP  => "who" ;
+      AccP  => variants {"who" ; "whom"} ;
+      GenP  => "whose" ;
+      GenSP => "whom"
+      } ;
+    n = num
+  } ;
+
+  intPronWhat : Number -> IntPron = \num -> {
+    s = table {
+      GenP  => "what's" ;
+      _ => "what"
+      } ;
+    n = num
+  } ;
+
+
+--2 Utterances
+
+-- By utterances we mean whole phrases, such as 
+-- 'can be used as moves in a language game': indicatives, questions, imperative,
+-- and one-word utterances. The rules are far from complete.
+--
+-- N.B. we have not included rules for texts, which we find we cannot say much
+-- about on this level. In semantically rich GF grammars, texts, dialogues, etc, 
+-- will of course play an important role as categories not reducible to utterances.
+-- An example is proof texts, whose semantics show a dependence between premises
+-- and conclusions. Another example is intersentential anaphora.
+
+  Utterance = SS ;
+  
+  indicUtt : Sentence -> Utterance = \x -> ss (x.s ++ ".") ;
+  interrogUtt : Question -> Utterance = \x -> ss (x.s ! DirQ ++ "?") ;
+
+
+--2 Questions
+--
+-- Questions are either direct ("are you happy") or indirect 
+-- ("if/whether you are happy").
+
+param 
+  QuestForm = DirQ | IndirQ ;
+
+oper
+  Question = SS1 QuestForm ;
+
+--3 Yes-no questions 
+--
+-- Yes-no questions are used both independently 
+-- ("does John walk" / "if John walks")
+-- and after interrogative adverbials 
+-- ("why does John walk" / "why John walks").
+-- 
+-- It is economical to handle with all these cases by the one
+-- rule, $questVerbPhrase'$. The word ("ob" / "whether") never appears
+-- if there is an adverbial.
+
+  questVerbPhrase : NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Question = 
+    questVerbPhrase' False ;
+
+  questVerbPhrase' : Bool -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Question = 
+    \adv,john,walk ->
+    {s = table {
+      DirQ   => if_then_else Str walk.isAux 
+                  (indicVerb (verbOfPhrase walk) john.p john.n ++
+                   john.s ! NomP ++ walk.s2 ! john.n) 
+                  (indicVerb verbP3Do john.p john.n ++ 
+                   john.s ! NomP ++ walk.s ! InfImp ++ walk.s2 ! john.n) ;
+      IndirQ => if_then_else Str adv [] (variants {"if" ; "whether"}) ++ 
+                (predVerbPhrase john walk).s
+      }
+    } ;
+
+  isThere : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> Question = \n,bar ->
+    questVerbPhrase 
+      (case n of {
+         Sg => nameNounPhrase (nameReg "there") ;
+         Pl => {s = \\_ => "there" ; n = Pl ; p = P3}
+         })
+      (predNounPhrase True (indefNounPhrase n bar)) ;
+
+
+--3 Wh-questions
+--
+-- Wh-questions are of two kinds: ones that are like $NP - VP$ sentences,
+-- others that are line $S/NP - NP$ sentences.
+
+  intVerbPhrase : IntPron -> VerbPhrase -> Question = \who,walk ->
+    {s = \\_ => who.s ! NomP ++ indicVerb (verbOfPhrase walk) P3 who.n ++ 
+                walk.s2 ! who.n 
+    } ;
+
+  intSlash : IntPron -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase -> Question = \who,yousee ->
+    {s = \\q =>
+           let {youSee = case q of {
+                  DirQ   => yousee.s ! True ; 
+                  IndirQ => yousee.s ! False
+                  }
+           } in
+           variants {
+             who.s ! AccP ++ youSee ++ yousee.s2 ;
+             yousee.s2 ++ who.s ! GenSP ++ youSee
+             } 
+    } ;
+
+--3 Interrogative adverbials
+--
+-- These adverbials will be defined in the lexicon: they include
+-- "when", "where", "how", "why", etc, which are all invariant one-word
+-- expressions. In addition, they can be formed by adding prepositions
+-- to interrogative pronouns, in the same way as adverbials are formed
+-- from noun phrases. 
+
+  IntAdverb = SS ;
+
+  prepIntAdverb : Preposition -> IntPron -> IntAdverb = \at, whom ->
+    ss (at ++ whom.s ! AccP) ;
+
+-- A question adverbial can be applied to anything, and whether this makes
+-- sense is a semantic question.
+
+  questAdverbial : IntAdverb -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Question = 
+    \why, you, walk ->
+    {s = \\q => why.s ++ (questVerbPhrase' True you walk).s ! q} ;
+
+
+--2 Imperatives
+--
+-- We only consider second-person imperatives. 
+
+  Imperative = SS1 Number ;
+
+  imperVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Imperative = \walk -> 
+    {s = \\n => walk.s ! InfImp ++ walk.s2 ! n} ;
+
+  imperUtterance : Number -> Imperative -> Utterance = \n,I ->
+    ss (I.s ! n ++ "!") ;
+
+--2 Sentence adverbials
+--
+-- This class covers adverbials such as "otherwise", "therefore", which are prefixed
+-- to a sentence to form a phrase.
+
+  advSentence : SS -> Sentence -> Utterance = \hence,itiseven ->
+    ss (hence.s ++ itiseven.s ++ ".") ;
+
+
+--2 Coordination
+--
+-- Coordination is to some extent orthogonal to the rest of syntax, and
+-- has been treated in a generic way in the module $CO$ in the file
+-- $coordination.gf$. The overall structure is independent of category,
+-- but there can be differences in parameter dependencies.
+--
+--3 Conjunctions
+--
+-- Coordinated phrases are built by using conjunctions, which are either
+-- simple ("and", "or") or distributed ("both - and", "either - or").
+--
+-- The conjunction has an inherent number, which is used when conjoining
+-- noun phrases: "John and Mary are..." vs. "John or Mary is..."; in the
+-- case of "or", the result is however plural if any of the disjuncts is.
+
+  Conjunction = CO.Conjunction ** {n : Number} ;
+  ConjunctionDistr = CO.ConjunctionDistr ** {n : Number} ;
+
+--3 Coordinating sentences
+--
+-- We need a category of lists of sentences. It is a discontinuous
+-- category, the parts corresponding to 'init' and 'last' segments
+-- (rather than 'head' and 'tail', because we have to keep track of the slot between
+-- the last two elements of the list). A list has at least two elements.
+
+  ListSentence : Type = SD2 ;
+
+  twoSentence : (_,_ : Sentence) -> ListSentence = CO.twoSS ;
+
+  consSentence : ListSentence -> Sentence -> ListSentence =
+    CO.consSS CO.comma ;
+
+-- To coordinate a list of sentences by a simple conjunction, we place
+-- it between the last two elements; commas are put in the other slots,
+-- e.g. "du rauchst, er trinkt und ich esse".
+
+  conjunctSentence : Conjunction -> ListSentence -> Sentence = \c,xs ->
+    ss (CO.conjunctX c xs) ;
+
+-- To coordinate a list of sentences by a distributed conjunction, we place
+-- the first part (e.g. "either") in front of the first element, the second
+-- part ("or") between the last two elements, and commas in the other slots.
+-- For sentences this is really not used.
+
+  conjunctDistrSentence : ConjunctionDistr -> ListSentence -> Sentence = 
+    \c,xs ->
+    ss (CO.conjunctDistrX c xs) ;
+
+--3 Coordinating adjective phrases
+--
+-- The structure is the same as for sentences. The result is a prefix adjective
+-- if and only if all elements are prefix.
+
+  ListAdjPhrase : Type = SD2 ** {p : Bool} ;
+
+  twoAdjPhrase : (_,_ : AdjPhrase) -> ListAdjPhrase = \x,y ->
+    CO.twoStr x.s y.s ** {p = andB x.p y.p} ;
+
+  consAdjPhrase : ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase -> ListAdjPhrase =  \xs,x ->
+    CO.consStr CO.comma xs x.s ** {p = andB xs.p x.p} ;
+
+  conjunctAdjPhrase : Conjunction -> ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \c,xs ->
+    ss (CO.conjunctX c xs) ** {p = xs.p} ;
+
+  conjunctDistrAdjPhrase : ConjunctionDistr -> ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = 
+    \c,xs ->
+    ss (CO.conjunctDistrX c xs) ** {p = xs.p} ;
+
+
+--3 Coordinating noun phrases
+--
+-- The structure is the same as for sentences. The result is either always plural
+-- or plural if any of the components is, depending on the conjunction.
+
+  ListNounPhrase : Type = {s1,s2 : NPForm => Str ; n : Number ; p : Person} ;
+
+  twoNounPhrase : (_,_ : NounPhrase) -> ListNounPhrase = \x,y ->
+    CO.twoTable NPForm x y ** {n = conjNumber x.n y.n ; p = conjPerson x.p y.p} ;
+
+  consNounPhrase : ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase -> ListNounPhrase =  \xs,x ->
+    CO.consTable NPForm CO.comma xs x ** 
+       {n = conjNumber xs.n x.n ; p = conjPerson xs.p x.p} ;
+
+  conjunctNounPhrase : Conjunction -> ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \c,xs ->
+    CO.conjunctTable NPForm c xs ** {n = conjNumber c.n xs.n ; p = xs.p} ;
+
+  conjunctDistrNounPhrase : ConjunctionDistr -> ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = 
+    \c,xs ->
+    CO.conjunctDistrTable NPForm c xs ** {n = conjNumber c.n xs.n ; p = xs.p} ;
+
+-- We have to define a calculus of numbers of persons. For numbers,
+-- it is like the conjunction with $Pl$ corresponding to $False$.
+
+  conjNumber : Number -> Number -> Number = \m,n -> case <m,n> of {
+    <Sg,Sg> => Sg ;
+    _ => Pl 
+    } ;
+
+-- For persons, we let the latter argument win ("either you or I am absent"
+-- but "either I or you are absent"). This is not quite clear.
+
+  conjPerson : Person -> Person -> Person = \_,p -> 
+    p ;
+
+
+
+--2 Subjunction
+--
+-- Subjunctions ("when", "if", etc) 
+-- are a different way to combine sentences than conjunctions.
+-- The main clause can be a sentences, an imperatives, or a question,
+-- but the subjoined clause must be a sentence.
+--
+-- There are uniformly two variant word orders, e.g. 
+-- "if you smoke I get angry"
+-- and "I get angry if you smoke".
+
+  Subjunction = SS ;
+
+  subjunctSentence : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Sentence -> Sentence = 
+    \if, A, B -> 
+    ss (subjunctVariants if A.s B.s) ;
+
+  subjunctImperative : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Imperative -> Imperative = 
+    \if, A, B -> 
+    {s = \\n => subjunctVariants if A.s (B.s ! n)} ;
+
+  subjunctQuestion : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Question -> Question = 
+    \if, A, B ->
+    {s = \\q => subjunctVariants if A.s (B.s ! q)} ;
+
+  subjunctVariants : Subjunction -> Str -> Str -> Str = \if,A,B ->
+    variants {if.s ++ A ++ "," ++ B ; B ++ "," ++ if.s ++ A} ;
+
+  subjunctVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Subjunction -> Sentence -> VerbPhrase =
+    \V, if, A -> 
+    adVerbPhrase V (advPost (if.s ++ A.s)) ;
+
+--2 One-word utterances
+-- 
+-- An utterance can consist of one phrase of almost any category, 
+-- the limiting case being one-word utterances. These
+-- utterances are often (but not always) in what can be called the
+-- default form of a category, e.g. the nominative.
+-- This list is far from exhaustive.
+
+  useNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> Utterance = \john ->
+    postfixSS "." (defaultNounPhrase john) ;
+
+  useCommonNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> Utterance = \n,car -> 
+    useNounPhrase (indefNounPhrase n car) ;
+
+  useRegularName : SS -> NounPhrase = \john -> 
+    nameNounPhrase (nameReg john.s) ;
+
+-- Here are some default forms.
+
+  defaultNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> SS = \john -> 
+    ss (john.s ! NomP) ;
+
+  defaultQuestion : Question -> SS = \whoareyou ->
+    ss (whoareyou.s ! DirQ) ;
+
+  defaultSentence : Sentence -> Utterance = \x -> 
+    x ;
+
+} ;

grammars/resource/nenglish/TestResourceEng.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+-- use this path to read the grammar from the same directory
+--# -path=.:../nabstract:../../prelude
+
+concrete TestResourceEng of TestResource = StructuralEng ** open SyntaxEng in {
+
+flags startcat=Phr ; lexer=literals ; parser=chart ; unlexer=text ;
+
+-- a random sample from the lexicon
+
+lin
+  Big = mkAdjDegr "big" "bigger" "biggest";
+  Small = adjDegrReg "small" ;
+  Old = adjDegrReg "old" ;
+  Young = adjDegrReg "young" ;
+  American = simpleAdj "American" ;
+  Finnish = simpleAdj "Finnish" ;
+  Married = simpleAdj "married" ** {s2 = "to"} ;
+  Man = cnHum (mkNoun "man" "men" "man's" "men's") ;
+  Woman = cnHum (mkNoun "woman" "women" "woman's" "women's") ;
+  Car = cnNoHum (nounReg "car") ;
+  House = cnNoHum (nounReg "house") ;
+  Light = cnNoHum (nounReg "light") ;
+  Walk = verbNoPart (regVerbP3 "walk") ;
+  Run = verbNoPart (mkVerb "run" "ran" "run") ;
+  Say = verbNoPart (mkVerb "say" "said" "said") ;
+  Prove = verbNoPart (regVerbP3 "prove") ; 
+  Send = mkTransVerbDir (verbNoPart (mkVerb "send" "sent" "sent")) ;
+  Love = mkTransVerbDir (verbNoPart (verbP3e "love")) ;
+  Wait = mkTransVerb (verbNoPart (regVerbP3 "wait")) "for" ;
+  Give = mkDitransVerb (verbNoPart (mkVerb "give" "gave" "given")) [] [] ;
+  Prefer = mkDitransVerb 
+    (verbNoPart (mkVerb "prefer" "preferred" "preferred")) [] "to" ;
+  Mother = funOfReg "mother" Hum ;
+  Uncle = funOfReg "uncle" Hum ;
+  Connection = cnNoHum (nounReg "connection") ** {s2 = "from" ; s3 = "to"} ;
+
+  Always = advPre "always" ;
+  Well = advPost "well" ;
+
+  SwitchOn  = mkTransVerbPart (verbP3s "switch") "on" ;
+  SwitchOff = mkTransVerbPart (verbP3s "switch") "off" ;
+
+  John = nameReg "John" ;
+  Mary = nameReg "Mary" ;
+
+} ;

grammars/resource/nenglish/TypesEng.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+--1 English Word Classes and Morphological Parameters
+--
+-- This is a resource module for English morphology, defining the
+-- morphological parameters and word classes of English. It is aimed
+-- to be complete w.r.t. the description of word forms.
+-- However, it only includes those parameters that are needed for
+-- analysing individual words: such parameters are defined in syntax modules.
+--
+-- We use the language-independent prelude.
+
+resource TypesEng = open Prelude in {
+
+--
+--2 Enumerated parameter types 
+--
+-- These types are the ones found in school grammars.
+-- Their parameter values are atomic.
+
+param 
+  Number = Sg | Pl ;
+  Gender = NoHum | Hum ;
+  Case   = Nom | Gen ;
+  Person = P1 | P2 | P3 ;
+  Degree = Pos | Comp | Sup ;
+
+-- For data abstraction, we define
+
+oper 
+  singular = Sg ;
+  plural = Pl ;
+
+--2 Word classes and hierarchical parameter types
+--
+-- Real parameter types (i.e. ones on which words and phrases depend) 
+-- are often hierarchical. The alternative would be cross-products of
+-- simple parameters, but this would usually overgenerate.
+--
+
+--3 Common nouns
+--
+-- Common nouns are inflected in number and case.
+
+  CommonNoun : Type = {s : Number => Case => Str} ;
+
+
+--
+--3 Adjectives
+--
+-- The major division is between the comparison degrees, but it
+-- is also good to leave room for adjectives that cannon be compared.
+-- Such adjectives are simply strings.
+
+  Adjective : Type = SS ;
+  AdjDegr = SS1 Degree ;
+
+--3 Verbs
+--
+-- We treat the full conjugation now.
+-- The present tense is made to depend on person, which correspond to forms
+-- in the singular; plural forms are uniformly equal to the 2nd person singular.
+
+param
+  VForm = InfImp | Indic Person | Past Number | PPart ;
+
+oper
+  VerbP3 : Type = SS1 VForm ;
+
+-- A full verb can moreover have a particle.
+
+  Particle : Type = Str ;
+  Verb = VerbP3 ** {s1 : Particle} ; 
+
+--
+--3 Pronouns
+--
+-- For pronouns, we need four case forms: "I" - "me" - "my" - "mine".
+
+param
+  NPForm = NomP | AccP | GenP | GenSP ; 
+
+oper
+  Pronoun  : Type = {s : NPForm => Str ; n : Number ; p : Person} ;
+
+-- Coercions between pronoun cases and ordinaty cases.
+
+  toCase  : NPForm -> Case = \c -> case c of {GenP => Gen ; _ => Nom} ;
+  toNPForm : Case -> NPForm = \c -> case c of {Gen  => GenP ; _ => NomP} ; ---
+
+--3 Proper names
+--
+-- Proper names only need two cases.
+
+  ProperName : Type = SS1 Case ;
+
+--3 Relative pronouns
+--
+-- Relative pronouns are inflected in gender (human/nonhuman), number, and case.
+
+  RelPron : Type = {s : Gender => Number => NPForm => Str} ;
+} ;
+