Pinyin versions of chinese, named Cmn; mostly automatically generated

lib/doc/Compare.hs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 lang1 = "Eng"
-lang2 = "Tha"
+lang2 = "Chi"
 
 -- to write a comparison for two languages
 

lib/src/chinese/README

@@ -230,3 +230,64 @@ Lexicon and Structural checked and completed by Jolene. Some open issues found b
 
 GF/lib/src/chinese/ complete and compilable! Added to darcs by AR.
 
+Issues from 
+
+  Yip-Po Ching and Don Rimmington, 
+  Basic Chinese. A Grammar and Workbook, 
+  Routledge, 
+  London and New York, 
+  2009.
+
+p. 4 the dun-comma in lists
+
+p. 28 "who is X" vs. "X is who"
+
+p. 38 er -> liang before a measure word
+
+p. 41 ordinals require measure words: di yi ge xuesheng
+
+p. 44 how many - duoshao vs. yi
+
+p. 63 possessive precedes indefinite plural: wo de hen duopengyou "many of my friends"
+
+p. 94 degree + adjective + de + noun: hen da de wuzi
+
+p. 95 no copula in adjectival predication
+
+p. 96 adjectives negated by bu
+
+p. 97 AB -> AABB reduplication
+
+p. 104 non-gradable adjectives require shi: zhei tiao yu shi huo de
+
+p. 106 it was Chinese that I studied
+
+p. 116 I did it better than you
+
+p. 128 disyllabic place words
+
+p. 155-158 mapping tenses to aspects
+
+p. 168 "can": hui/neng
+
+p. 174 negation and tense
+
+p. 185 yes/no
+
+p. 186 alternation questions
+
+p. 197 "or" haishi/huozhe
+
+p. 206 "please" in imperative
+
+p. 207 "let's" zanmen he yi bei ba
+
+p. 242 coverbs
+
+p. 255 disyllabic prepositions
+
+
+
+
+
+

lib/src/chinese/StructuralChi.gf

@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ whatSg_IP, whatPl_IP = mkIPL " 什么" ;
 where_IAdv = mkIAdvL "哪里" ;
 when_IAdv = mkIAdvL "什么时候" ;
 how_IAdv = mkIAdvL "如何" ;
-all_Predet = ss "所有" ;
+all_Predet = ssword "所有" ;
 many_Det = mkDet "多" Pl ;
 someSg_Det = mkDet (word "一些") Sg ;
 somePl_Det = mkDet (word "一些") Sg ;

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/AdjectiveCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+concrete AdjectiveCmn of Adjective = CatCmn ** open ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+  lin
+
+    PositA  a = a ;
+
+    --ComparA a np = complexAP (a.s ++ than_s ++ np.s) ;
+    ComparA a np = complexAP (than_s ++ np.s ++ a.s) ;
+
+    UseComparA a = complexAP (geng_s ++ a.s) ;
+
+    AdjOrd ord = complexAP ord.s ;
+
+    CAdvAP ad ap np = complexAP (ap.s ++ ad.s ++ ad.p ++ np.s) ;
+
+    ComplA2 a np = complexAP (a.s ++ appPrep a.c2 np.s) ;
+
+    ReflA2 a = complexAP (a.s ++ appPrep a.c2 reflPron) ;
+
+    SentAP ap sc = complexAP (ap.s ++ sc.s) ;
+
+    AdAP ada ap = complexAP (ada.s ++ ap.s) ;
+
+    UseA2 a = a ;
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/AdverbCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+concrete AdverbCmn of Adverb = CatCmn ** 
+  open ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+  lin
+    PositAdvAdj a = {s = a.s ; advType = ATManner} ;
+
+    PrepNP prep np = ss (appPrep prep np.s) ** {advType = ATPlace} ; --- should depend on prep, np ? or treat in ExtraCmn ?
+
+    ComparAdvAdj cadv a np = ss (a.s ++ cadv.s ++ cadv.p ++ np.s) ** {advType = ATManner} ;
+
+    ComparAdvAdjS cadv a s = ss (a.s ++ cadv.s ++ cadv.p ++ s.s) ** {advType = ATManner} ;
+
+    AdAdv adv ad = ss (ad.s ++ adv.s) ** {advType = ad.advType} ;
+
+    SubjS subj s = ss (subj.prePart ++ s.s ++ subj.sufPart)  ** {advType = ATManner} ;
+
+    AdnCAdv cadv = ss (cadv.s ++ conjThat) ** {advType = ATManner} ; -----
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/AllCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+--# -path=.:../abstract:../common:prelude
+
+concrete AllCmn of AllChiAbs = LangCmn, ExtraCmn ;

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/CatCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+concrete CatCmn of Cat = CommonX - [Tense, Temp, Adv] ** open ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+  lincat
+
+-- Tensed/Untensed
+
+    S  = {s : Str} ;
+    QS = {s : Str} ;
+    RS = {s : Str} ;
+    SSlash = {s : Str ; c2 : Preposition} ; 
+
+-- Sentence
+
+    Cl = Clause ; -- {s : Polarity => Aspect => Str ; np: Str ; vp: Polarity => Aspect => Str} ; 
+
+    ClSlash = Clause ** {c2 : Preposition} ;
+
+    Imp = {s : Polarity => Str} ;
+
+-- Question
+
+    QCl = {s : Polarity => Aspect => Str} ; 
+    IP = {s : Str} ;
+    IComp = {s : Str} ;    
+    IDet, IQuant = {s : Str} ;
+
+-- Relative
+
+    RCl = {s : Polarity => Aspect => Str} ;
+    RP = {s : Str} ;
+
+-- Verb
+
+    VP = ResCmn.VP ; 
+    Comp = ResCmn.VP ;
+    VPSlash = ResCmn.VP ** {c2 : Preposition} ;
+
+-- Adjective
+
+    AP = ResCmn.Adj ;
+
+-- Noun
+
+    CN = ResCmn.Noun ;
+    NP, Pron = ResCmn.NP ;
+    Det, Quant = Determiner ;
+    Predet = {s : Str} ; ----
+    Ord = {s : Str} ;
+    Num = {s : Str ; numType : NumType} ;
+
+    Adv = {s : Str ; advType : AdvType} ;
+
+-- Numeral
+
+    Numeral, Card, Digits = {s : Str} ;
+
+-- Structural
+
+    Conj = {s : ConjForm => {s1,s2 : Str}} ;    
+    Subj = {prePart : Str ; sufPart : Str} ;
+    Prep = Preposition ;
+
+-- Open lexical classes, e.g. Lexicon
+
+    V, VS, VQ, VA = Verb ; 
+    V2, V2Q, V2S = Verb ** {c2 : Preposition} ;
+    V3, V2A, V2V = Verb ** {c2, c3 : Preposition} ;
+    VV = Verb ;
+
+    A = ResCmn.Adj ;
+    A2 = ResCmn.Adj ** {c2 : Preposition} ;
+
+    N = ResCmn.Noun ;
+    N2 = ResCmn.Noun ** {c2 : Preposition} ;
+    N3 = ResCmn.Noun ** {c2,c3 : Preposition} ;
+    PN = ResCmn.NP ;
+
+-- overridden
+
+    Temp  = {s : Str ; t : Aspect} ;
+    Tense = {s : Str ; t : Aspect} ;
+
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/ConjunctionCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+concrete ConjunctionCmn of Conjunction = CatCmn ** open ResCmn, Prelude, Coordination in {
+
+  lin
+
+    ConjS c = conjunctDistrSS (c.s ! CSent) ;
+    ConjAdv c as = conjunctDistrSS (c.s ! CSent) as ** {advType = ATPlace} ; ---- ??
+    ConjNP c = conjunctDistrSS (c.s ! CPhr CNPhrase) ;
+    ConjAP c as = conjunctDistrSS (c.s ! CPhr CAPhrase) as ** {monoSyl = False} ;
+    ConjRS c = conjunctDistrSS (c.s ! CSent) ;
+
+-- These fun's are generated from the list cat's.
+
+    BaseS = twoSS ;
+    ConsS = consrSS thcomma ;
+    BaseAdv = twoSS ;
+    ConsAdv = consrSS thcomma ;
+    BaseNP = twoSS ;
+    ConsNP = consrSS thcomma ;
+    BaseAP = twoSS ;
+    ConsAP = consrSS thcomma ;
+    BaseRS = twoSS ;
+    ConsRS = consrSS thcomma ;
+
+  lincat
+    [S] = {s1,s2 : Str} ;
+    [Adv] = {s1,s2 : Str} ;
+    [NP] = {s1,s2 : Str} ;
+    [AP] = {s1,s2 : Str} ;
+    [RS] = {s1,s2 : Str} ;
+
+  oper
+    thcomma : Str = [] ; ---- should be a space
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/ExtraCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+concrete ExtraCmn of ExtraChiAbs = CatCmn ** 
+  open ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+  lincat 
+    Aspect = {s : Str ; a : ResCmn.Aspect} ;
+
+} 

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/GrammarCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+--# -path=.:../abstract:../common:prelude
+
+concrete GrammarCmn of Grammar = 
+  NounCmn, 
+  VerbCmn, 
+  AdjectiveCmn,
+  AdverbCmn,
+  NumeralCmn,
+  SentenceCmn,
+  QuestionCmn,
+  RelativeCmn,
+  ConjunctionCmn,
+  PhraseCmn,
+  TextCmn,
+  StructuralCmn,
+  IdiomCmn,
+  TenseCmn
+  ** {
+
+flags startcat = Phr ; unlexer = text ; lexer = text ;
+
+} ;

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/IdiomCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+concrete IdiomCmn of Idiom = CatCmn ** open Prelude, ResCmn in {
+
+  lin
+    ---- formal subject, e.g. it is hot ?? now empty subject
+    ImpersCl vp =  mkClause [] vp ;
+    --can be empty, or ImpersCl vp =  mkClause "天" vp ; but "天" only used to describe weather(e.g. it's raining)
+
+    ---- one wants to learn Chinese ?? now empty subject
+    GenericCl vp = mkClause [] vp ;
+    -- GenericCl vp = mkClause "有人" vp ; (meaning: there is a person)
+
+    ---- it is John who did it
+    CleftNP np rs = mkClause np.s copula rs.s ;
+
+    CleftAdv ad s = mkClause ad.s (insertObj s (predV copula)) ; ---- it is here she slept
+
+    ExistNP np = mkClause [] (regVerb you_s) np.s ; ---- infl of you
+
+    ExistIP ip = {s = (mkClause [] (regVerb you_s) ip.s).s} ; ---- infl of you
+
+    ProgrVP vp = vp ; ----
+
+    ImpPl1 vp = ss (infVP vp) ; ----
+
+}
+
+

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/LangCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+--# -path=.:../abstract:../common:../prelude
+
+
+concrete LangCmn of Lang = 
+  GrammarCmn,
+  LexiconCmn
+  ** {
+
+flags startcat = Phr ; unlexer = concat ; lexer = text ;
+
+} ;

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/LexiconCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,458 @@
+concrete LexiconCmn of Lexicon = CatCmn ** 
+  open ParadigmsCmn, ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+flags 
+  coding = utf8 ;
+
+lin
+
+-- LexiconCmn
+
+  man_N = mkN "nan2ren2" "ge4";        -- "nanren" "ge" first being noun, second is classifier(counter)
+  woman_N = mkN "nu:3ren2" "ge4";      -- "nvren"  "ge" classifier behaves like the "cup" in "cup of tea"
+  house_N = mkN "fang2zi3" "jian1";      -- "fangzi" "jian"
+  tree_N = mkN "shu4" "ke1";         -- "shu"  "ke"
+  big_A = mkA "da4" ;          -- "da"
+  small_A = mkA "xiao3" ;        -- "xiao"
+  green_A = mkA "lu:4" ;        -- "lv"
+  walk_V = mkV "zou3" ;             -- "zou"
+  sleep_V = mkV "shui4" ;            -- "shui"
+----  arrive_V = mkV "dao4" "le" [] [] "guo4";           -- "dao"
+  love_V2 = mkV2 "ai4" ;            -- "ai"
+  watch_V2 = mkV2 "kan1" ;            -- "kan"
+---  please2_V2 = mkV "ma2fan2" ;        -- "mafan"
+---  believe_VS = mkV "xiang1xin4" ;       -- "xiangxin"
+  know_VS = mkV "zhi1dao4" ;          -- "zhidao"
+  wonder_VQ = mkV "hao3ji1" ;        -- "haoqi" 
+  john_PN = mkPN "yao1han4"  ;        -- "yuehan"
+---  mary_PN = mkPN "ma3li2"  ;        -- "mali"
+
+
+-- Swadesh
+
+--big_A = mkA "da4" ;
+long_A = mkA "chang2" ;
+wide_A = mkA "kuan1" ;
+thick_A = mkA "hou4" ;
+heavy_A = mkA "chong2" ;
+--small_A = mkA "xiao3" ;
+short_A = mkA "duan3" ;
+narrow_A = mkA "zhai3" ;
+thin_A = mkA "bo2" ;   -- [mark] for person mkA "shou4"
+--woman_N = mkN "nu:3ren2" ;
+--man(adult_N = mkN "nan2ren2" ;
+--man(human_N = mkN "ren2" ;
+child_N = mkN "hai2zi3" ;
+wife_N = mkN "qi1zi3" ;
+husband_N = mkN "zhang4fu1" ;
+--father_N = mkN "fu4qin1" ;
+animal_N = mkN "dong4wu4" "qi2"; -- [mark] added classifier for nouns
+fish_N = mkN "yu2" "tiao2";
+bird_N = mkN "niao3" "qi2";
+dog_N = mkN "gou3" "qi2";
+louse_N = mkN "shi1" "qi2";
+snake_N = mkN "she2" "tiao2";
+worm_N = mkN "chong2" "qi2";
+--tree_N = mkN "shu4" ;
+forest_N = mkN "sen1lin2" "pian1";
+stick_N = mkN "shu4zhi1" ;
+fruit_N = mkN "shui3guo3" ;
+seed_N = mkN "zhong3zi3" "li4";
+leaf_N = mkN "ye4zi3" "pian1"; -- [mark] "ye4" -> "ye4zi3" , "ye4" is often treated as morpheme
+root_N = mkN "shu4gen1" ; -- [mark] "gen1" --> "shu4gen1"(tree root)
+bark_N = mkN "shu4pi2" "kuai1";
+flower_N = mkN "hua1" "duo3";
+grass_N = mkN "cao3" "ke1";
+rope_N = mkN "sheng2" "gen1";
+skin_N = mkN "pi2" "kuai1";
+meat_N = mkN "rou4" "kuai1";
+blood_N = mkN "xie3" "di1"; -- [mark] several classifiers, "di1"(drop), "tan1"(puddle)
+bone_N = mkN "gu3tou2" "kuai1"; -- [mark] "gu3" -> "gu3tou2" , "gu3" is often treated as morpheme
+fat_N = mkN "zhi1fang2" "dui1"; -- [mark] often without classifier
+egg_N = mkN "dan4" "ke1";
+horn_N = mkN "jiao3" "gen1";
+tail_N = mkN "wei3ba1" "tiao2"; -- [mark] "wei3" -> "wei3ba1" , "wei3" is often treated as morpheme, or if stands alone, it is a classifier itself
+feather_N = mkN "yu3mao2" "gen1";
+hair_N = mkN "tou2fa1" "gen1"; -- [mark] several classifiers , "gen1"(single hair), "ba3"(several hairs)
+head_N = mkN "tou2" "ke1"; 
+ear_N = mkN "er3duo3" "qi2";
+eye_N = mkN "yan3jing1" "qi2";
+nose_N = mkN "bi2zi3" ;
+mouth_N = mkN "zui3" "zhang1";
+tooth_N = mkN "ya2chi3" "ke1";
+tongue_N = mkN "she2" "gen1";
+fingernail_N = mkN "zhi3jia3" "pian1";
+foot_N = mkN "jiao3" "qi2";
+leg_N = mkN "tui3" "tiao2";
+knee_N = mkN "xi1gai4" ; -- [mark] "xi1" -> "xi1gai4"
+hand_N = mkN "shou3" "qi2";
+wing_N = mkN "chi4bang3" "qi2"; -- [mark] "yi4" -> "chi4bang3", "chi4bang3" is the common form for wing.
+belly_N = mkN "du3zi3" ;
+guts_N = mkN "chang2zi3" "gen1";
+neck_N = mkN "bo2zi3" ;
+back_N = mkN "bei1" ; 
+breast_N = mkN "xiong1" ;
+heart_N = mkN "xin1zang1" "ke1";
+liver_N = mkN "gan1" ;
+drink_V2 = mkV2 "he1" ;
+eat_V2 = mkV2 "chi1" ;
+bite_V2 = mkV2 "yao3" ;
+suck_V2 = mkV2 "xi1" ;
+spit_V = mkV "tu3" ;
+vomit_V = mkV "ou3" ;
+blow_V = mkV "chui1" ;
+breathe_V = mkV "hu1xi1" ;
+laugh_V = mkV "xiao4" ;
+see_V2 = mkV2 "kan1" ;
+hear_V2 = mkV2 "ting1" ;
+--know_V = mkV "zhi1dao4" ;
+think_V = mkV "xiang3" ;
+smell_V = mkV "wen2" ; -- [mark] "xiu4" -> "wen2", "wen2" is the common form for smell.
+fear_V2 = mkV2 "pa4" ;
+--sleep_V = mkV "shui4" ;
+live_V = mkV "huo2" ;
+die_V = mkV "si3" ;
+kill_V2 = mkV2 "sha1" ;
+fight_V2 = mkV2 "da2jia4" ; -- [mark] "chao3jia4" -> "da2jia4", "chao3jia4" = quarrel, argue
+hunt_V2 = mkV2 "da2lie4" ; -- [mark] "da2lie4" is iv, can't think of proper translation in v2 form for hunt 
+hit_V2 = mkV2 "da2" ;
+cut_V2 = mkV2 "ge1" ;
+split_V2 = mkV2 "pi1kai1" ;
+stab_V2 = mkV2 "ci4" ;
+scratch_V2 = mkV2 "sao1" ;
+dig_V = mkV "wa1" ;
+swim_V = mkV "you2yong3" ;
+fly_V = mkV "fei1" ;
+--walk_V = mkV "zou3" ;
+come_V = mkV "lai2" ;
+lie_V = mkV "tang3" ;
+sit_V = mkV "zuo4" ;
+stand_V = mkV "zhan4" ;
+turn_V = mkV "zhuan3" ;
+fall_V = mkV "la4xia4" ;
+hold_V2 = mkV2 "wo4" ;
+squeeze_V2 = mkV2 "ji3" ;
+rub_V2 = mkV2 "rou2" ;
+wash_V2 = mkV2 "xi3" ;
+wipe_V2 = mkV2 "ca1" ;
+pull_V2 = mkV2 "la1" ;
+push_V2 = mkV2 "tui1" ;
+throw_V2 = mkV2 "reng1" ;
+tie_V2 = mkV2 "bang3" ;
+sew_V = mkV "feng2" ;
+count_V2 = mkV2 "shu3" ;
+say_VS = mkVS (mkV "shui4") ;
+sing_V = mkV "chang4" ;
+play_V = mkV "wan2" ;
+float_V = mkV "fu2" ;
+flow_V = mkV "liu2" ;
+freeze_V = mkV "jie1bing1" ;
+swell_V = mkV "peng2zhang4" ;
+sun_N = mkN "tai4yang2" ;
+moon_N = mkN "yue4liang4" ;
+star_N = mkN "xing1xing1" "ke1";
+water_N = mkN "shui3" "di1";
+rain_N = mkN "yu3" "chang3";
+river_N = mkN "he2" "tiao2";
+lake_N = mkN "hu2" ;
+sea_N = mkN "hai3" "pian1";
+salt_N = mkN "yan2" "ping2";
+stone_N = mkN "dan4tou2" "kuai1";
+sand_N = mkN "sha1" "li4";
+dust_N = mkN "chen2tu3" [];
+earth_N = mkN "deqiu2" ;
+cloud_N = mkN "yun2" "duo3";
+fog_N = mkN "wu4" "chang3";
+sky_N = mkN "tian1kong1" "pian1";
+wind_N = mkN "feng1" "zhen4";
+snow_N = mkN "xue3" "chang3";
+ice_N = mkN "bing1" "kuai1";
+smoke_N = mkN "yan1" "zhen4";
+fire_N = mkN "huo3" "chang3";
+ashes_N = mkN "hui1" [];
+burn_V = mkV "shao1" ;
+road_N = mkN "lu4" "tiao2";
+mountain_N = mkN "shan1" "zuo4";
+red_A = mkA "hong2" ;
+--green_A = mkA "lu:4" ;
+yellow_A = mkA "huang2" ;
+white_A = mkA "bai2" ;
+black_A = mkA "hei1" ;
+night_N = mkN "ye4wan3" ; -- [mark] "ye4wan3" 's classifier is "ge4"
+day_N = mkN "bai2tian1" []; -- [mark] "bai2tian1" -> "tian1", "tian1" itself is classifier
+year_N = mkN "nian2" [] ; -- [mark] "nian2" itself is classifier
+warm_A = mkA "wen1nuan3" ;
+cold_A = mkA "leng3" ;
+full_A = mkA "man3" ;
+new_A = mkA "xin1" ;
+old_A = mkA "lao3" ; -- [mark] "lao3" for person, "jiu4" for things
+good_A = mkA "hao3" ;
+bad_A = mkA "huai4" ;
+rotten_A = mkA "lan4" ;
+dirty_A = mkA "zang1" ;
+straight_A = mkA "zhi2" ;
+round_A = mkA "yuan2" ;
+sharp_A = mkA "jian1" ;
+dull_A = mkA "dun4" ;
+smooth_A = mkA "guang1gu3" ;
+wet_A = mkA "shi1" ;
+dry_A = mkA "gan1" ;
+correct_A = mkA "dui4" ;
+near_A = mkA "jin4" ;
+far_A = mkA "yuan3" ;
+left_Ord = ss "zuo3" ;
+right_Ord = ss "you4" ;
+name_N = mkN "ming2zi4" ; -- [mark] "ming2" --> "ming2zi4"
+
+-- HSK
+
+add_V3 = mkV3 "jia1" ;
+airplane_N = mkN "fei1ji1" "jia4";
+already_Adv = mkAdv "yi3jing1" ;
+answer_V2S = mkV2S (mkV "hui2da1") ;
+apple_N = mkN "pin2guo3" ;
+art_N = mkN "yi4shu4" []; -- [mark] usually without classifier
+ask_V2Q = mkV2Q (mkV "wen4") ;
+bank_N = mkN "yin2hang2" "jian1";
+beautiful_A = mkA "piao1liang4" ;
+become_VA = mkV "bian4" ;
+beer_N = mkN "pi2jiu3" "bei1";
+bike_N = mkN "zi4hang2che1" "tai2";
+blue_A = mkA "la" ;
+boat_N = mkN "chuan2" "sao1";
+book_N = mkN "shu1" "ben3";
+bread_N = mkN "mian4bao1" ;
+buy_V2 = mkV2 "mai3" ;
+cap_N = mkN "mao4zi3" "ding3";
+car_N = mkN "qi4che1" "tai2";
+chair_N = mkN "yi3zi3" "ba3";
+city_N = mkN "cheng2shi4" ; -- [mark] "shi4" --> "cheng2shi4"
+clean_A = mkA "gan1jing4" ;
+coat_N = mkN "yi1fu2" "jian4";
+country_N = mkN "guo2jia1" ; -- [mark] "guo2" --> "guo2jia1"
+cow_N = mkN "niu2" "tou2";
+do_V2 = mkV2 "zuo4" ;
+doctor_N = mkN "yi1sheng1" "ming2";
+door_N = mkN "men2" "shan1";
+---easy_A2V = mkA "rong2yi4" ;
+factory_N = mkN "gong1chang3" "jian1";
+far_Adv = mkAdv "yuan3" ;
+---father_N2 = mkN2 "fu4qin1" ;
+fear_VS = mkVS (mkV "pa4") ;
+find_V2 = mkV2 "fa1xian4" ;
+forget_V2 = mkV2 "wang4" ;
+friend_N = mkN "peng2you3" ;
+girl_N = mkN "gu1niang2" ;
+give_V3 = mkV3 "gei3" ;
+go_V = mkV "qu4" ;
+--go_N = mkN "wang3" ;
+grammar_N = mkN "yu3fa3" ;
+hat_N = mkN "mao4zi3" "ding3";
+--take_N = mkN "dai4" ;
+--have_N = mkN "you3" ;
+--take_N = mkN "dai4" ;
+--have_N = mkN "you3" ;
+hill_N = mkN "shan1" "zuo4";
+hope_VS = mkV "xi1wang4" ;
+horse_N = mkN "ma3" "pi1";
+hot_A = mkA "re4" ;
+--how many_N = mkN "duo1shao3" ;
+important_A = mkA "chong2yao1" ;
+--heavy_A = mkA "chong2" ;
+industry_N = mkN "gong1ye4" [];
+jump_V = mkV "tiao4" ;
+know_V2 = mkV2 "zhi1dao4" ;
+know_VQ = mkV "zhi1dao4" ;
+lamp_N = mkN "deng1" "zhan3";
+language_N = mkN "yu3yan2" "zhong3";
+learn_V2 = mkV2 "xue2" ;
+--leave_N = mkN "li2kai1" ;
+leave_V2 = mkV2 "li2kai1" ; --[mark] "li2" --> "li2kai1", "li2" itself is either a morpheme, or a marker indicating distance
+--walk_N = mkN "zou3" ;
+like_V2 = mkV2 "xi3huan1" ;
+--be willing_N = mkN "yuan4yi4" ;
+listen_V2 = mkV2 "ting1" ;
+lose_V2 = mkV2 "diu1" ;
+--love_N = mkN "xi3huan1" ;
+love_V2 = mkV2 "ai4" ;
+---mother_N2 = mkN2 "ma1" ;
+music_N = mkN "yin1le4" [] ; -- [mark] usually without classifier
+newspaper_N = mkN "bao4zhi3" "zhang1"; --[mark] "bao4" --> "bao4zhi3"
+now_Adv = mkAdv "xian4zai4" ;
+number_N = mkN "hao2ma3" ; -- [mark] "hao2" --> "hao2ma3"
+open_V2 = mkV2 "kai1" ;
+paint_V2A = mkV2A (mkV "hua4") ;
+paper_N = mkN "zhi3" "zhang1";
+--place_N = mkN "defang1" ;
+--part_N = mkN "bu4fen1" ;
+pen_N = mkN "bi3" "qi2";
+--pen_N = mkN "gang1bi3" "qi2";
+person_N = mkN "ren2" ;
+--beat_N = mkN "da2" ;
+--pull_N = mkN "la1" ;
+play_V2 = mkV2 "wan2" ; --[mark] "wan2er2" --> "wan2"
+--perform_N = mkN "biao3yan3" ;
+--have_N = mkN "you3" ;
+put_V2 = mkV2 "bai3" ;
+--let go_N = mkN "fang4" ;
+question_N = mkN "wen4ti2" ;
+
+--be enough_N = mkN "gou4" ;
+--very_N = mkN "hen3" ;
+rain_V0 = mkV "xia4yu3";
+read_V2 = mkV2 "dou4" ;
+reason_N = mkN "dao4li3" ;
+restaurant_N = mkN "fan4dian4" "jian1";
+--appropriate_N = mkN "ge3shi4" ;
+--correct_N = mkN "zheng1que4" ;
+--run_N = mkN "pao3bu4" ;
+run_V = mkV "pao3" ;
+--road_N = mkN "dao4" ;
+school_N = mkN "xue2jiao4" "suo3";
+science_N = mkN "ke1xue2" []; -- [mark] usually without classifier
+sell_V3 = mkV3 "mai4" ;
+--go_N = mkN "qu4" ;
+send_V3 = mkV3 "ji4" ;
+--clap_N = mkN "pai1" ;
+sheep_N = mkN "yang2" "qi2";
+ship_N = mkN "chuan2" "sao1";
+shoe_N = mkN "xie2" "qi2";
+shop_N = mkN "shang1dian4" "jian1";
+--of that kind_N = mkN "na3yang4" ;
+--what_N = mkN "shen2ma" ;
+song_N = mkN "ge1" "shou3";
+--tell_N = mkN "jiang3" ;
+speak_V2 = mkV2 "shui4" ;
+--road_N = mkN "dao4" ;
+--live_N = mkN "zhu4" ;
+--act as_N = mkN "dang1" ;
+student_N = mkN "xue2sheng1" "ming2" ;
+table_N = mkN "zhuo1zi3" "zhang1";
+--word_N = mkN "hua4" ;
+talk_V3 = mkV3 "shui4" ;
+--talk_N = mkN "tan2" ;
+--education_N = mkN "jiao1yu4" ;
+teach_V2 = mkV2 "jiao1" ;
+--coach_N = mkN "fu3dao3" ;
+--teacher_N = mkN "xian1sheng1" ;
+--master worker_N = mkN "shi1fu4" ;
+teacher_N = mkN "lao3shi1" "ming2";
+television_N = mkN "dian4shi4" "tai2";
+--that_N = mkN "na3ge4" ;
+--that_N = mkN "na3" ;
+--from_N = mkN "cong1" ;
+--by way of_N = mkN "tong1guo4" ;
+--towards_N = mkN "xiang4" ;
+--and_N = mkN "he2" ;
+today_Adv = mkAdv "jin1tian1" ;
+--now_N = mkN "xian4zai4" ;
+--also_N = mkN "ye3" ;
+train_N = mkN "huo3che1" "liang4";
+travel_V = mkV "lu:3hang2" ;
+--below_N = mkN "xia4bian1" ;
+--understand_N = mkN "lejie3" ;
+understand_V2 = mkV2 "dong3" ;
+--recognize_N = mkN "ren4shi2" ;
+--open up_N = mkN "tong1" ;
+university_N = mkN "da4xue2" "suo3";
+wait_V2 = mkV2 "deng3" ;
+--need_N = mkN "xu1yao1" ;
+watch_V2 = mkV2 "kan1" ;
+--time_N = mkN "shi2hou4" ;
+--wait_N = mkN "deng3" ;
+--what_N = mkN "shen2ma" ;
+--how_N = mkN "zen3ma" ;
+win_V2 = mkV2 "ying2" ;
+--window_N = mkN "chuang1hu4" ;
+window_N = mkN "chuang1" "shan1";
+wine_N = mkN "jiu3" "ping2";
+--leave_N = mkN "li2" ;
+--do_N = mkN "zuo4" ;
+write_V2 = mkV2 "xie3" ;
+young_A = mkA "nian2qing1" ;
+
+-- from Google
+
+apartment_N = mkN "gong1yu4" "jian1" ;
+baby_N = mkN "ying1er2" ;
+boot_N = mkN "xue1zi3" "qi2" ; -- [mark] "ji1" --> "xue1zi3"
+boss_N = mkN "lao3ban3" ;
+boy_N = mkN "nan2hai2" ;
+brother_N2 = mkN2 "di4di4" ;
+butter_N = mkN "huang2you2" "he2";
+camera_N = mkN "she4xiang4tou2" ;
+carpet_N = mkN "detan3" "zhang1";
+cat_N = mkN "mao1" "qi2" ;
+ceiling_N = mkN "tian1hua1ban3" ; --[mark] "tian1hua1ban3shang4" --> "tian1hua1ban3"
+cheese_N = mkN "nai3lao4" "kuai1";
+church_N = mkN "jiao1tang2" "suo3" ;
+computer_N = mkN "ji4suan4ji1" "tai2" ;
+cousin_N = mkN "biao3di4" ;
+distance_N3 = mkN3 (mkN "deju4li2") emptyPrep emptyPrep ; ----
+enemy_N = mkN "di2ren2" ;
+father_N2 = mkN2 "fu4qin1" ;
+floor_N = mkN "deban3" ; -- [mark] floor "deban3"(have you cleaned the floor) "lou2ceng2"(which floor do you live?)
+fridge_N = mkN "bing1xiang1" "tai2" ;
+garden_N = mkN "hua1yuan2" "zuo4";
+glove_N = mkN "shou3tao4" "fu4";
+gold_N = mkN "jin1zi3" "kuai1"; -- [mark] also without classifier
+harbour_N = mkN "hai3gang3" ;
+iron_N = mkN "tie3" "kuai1"; -- [mark] also without classifier
+king_N = mkN "guo2wang2" ;
+leather_N = mkN "pi2ge2" "kuai1";
+love_N = mkN "ai4" [] ; -- [mark] "kuai1" --> [], often without classifier
+milk_N = mkN "niu2nai3" "bei1" ; -- [mark] "nai3" --> "niu2nai3", which literaly means cow milk
+mother_N2 = mkN2 "mu3qin1";
+oil_N = mkN "you2" "tong3" ; -- [mark] rewritten
+peace_N = mkN "he2ping2" []; -- [mark]  often without classifier
+planet_N = mkN "xing1qiu2" ;
+plastic_N = mkN "su4liao4" "kuai1";  -- [mark] "su4liao4zhi4cheng2" --> "su4liao4" often without classifier
+policeman_N = mkN "jing3cha2" "ming2" ;
+priest_N = mkN "mu4shi1" "wei4";
+queen_N = mkN "nu:3wang2" ;
+radio_N = mkN "shou1yin1ji1" "tai2" ;
+religion_N = mkN "zong1jiao1" []; -- [mark]  also without classifier
+rock_N = mkN "dan4tou2" "kuai1" ;
+roof_N = mkN "wu1ding3" ;
+rubber_N = mkN "xiang4jiao1" "kuai1";
+rule_N = mkN "gui1ze2" "xiang4"; -- [mark] "yuan2ze2" --> "gui1ze2"
+shirt_N = mkN "chen4shan1" "jian4" ;
+silver_N = mkN "yin2zi3" "kuai1"; -- [mark] "yin2" --> "yin2zi3"
+sister_N = mkN "mei4mei4" ;
+sock_N = mkN "wa4zi3" "qi2";
+steel_N = mkN "gang1" "kuai1"; 
+stove_N = mkN "lu2zi3" ;
+village_N = mkN "cun1zhuang1" "zuo4";
+war_N = mkN "zhan4zheng1" "chang3" ; -- [mark] rewritten
+wood_N = mkN "mu4tou2" "kuai1" ; -- [mark] "mu4" --> "mu4tou2"
+
+
+-- just missing
+
+lin
+  alas_Interj = ssword "ai1" ;  
+  beg_V2V = mkV2V (mkV "qi3qiu2") ;  -- beg him to do something
+  break_V2 = mkV2 "da2po4" ; 
+  broad_A = mkA "kuan1" ; 
+  brown_A = mkA "zong1" ; 
+  clever_A = mkA "cong1ming2" ; 
+  close_V2 = mkV2 "guan1bi4" ;  
+  easy_A2V = mkA2 "jian3chan2" ;  
+  empty_A = mkA "kong1" ; 
+  fun_AV = mkA "you3qu4" ;  
+  hate_V2 = mkV2 "tao3yan4" ; 
+  married_A2 = mkA2 "jie1hun1" ; 
+  paris_PN = mkPN "ba1li2" ; 
+  probable_AS = mkA "ke3neng2" ;  
+  ready_A = mkA "zhun3bei4hao3" ; -- [mark] "zhun3bei4hao3":  准备(v) + 好(adj,complement)
+  seek_V2 = mkV2 "xun2qiu2" ; 
+  stop_V = mkV "ting2zhi3" ; 
+  stupid_A = mkA "ben4" ; 
+  switch8off_V2 = mkV2 "guan1" ;  
+  switch8on_V2 = mkV2 "kai1" ; 
+  ugly_A = mkA "chou3" ; 
+  uncertain_A = mkA "bu4que4ding4" ; -- [mark] "bu4que4ding4":  不("un-") + 确定("certain")
+
+
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/MkPinyin.hs

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+import qualified Data.Map as Map
+import Pinyin (c2pMap, useMapGF, mkList)
+
+main = do
+  s <- readFile pinyinFile
+  let m = c2pMap (mkList (words s))
+  mapM_ (mkPinyin m) ["Lexicon", "Numeral", "Res", "Structural"]
+  return ()
+
+pinyinFile = "../pinyin.txt"
+
+mkPinyin ma mo = do
+  s <- readFile (mo ++ "Chi.gf")
+  writeFile (mo ++ "Cmn.gf") (useMapGF ma s)
+

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/NounCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+concrete NounCmn of Noun = CatCmn ** open ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+  lin
+    DetCN det cn = case det.detType of {
+            DTFull Sg => {s = det.s ++ cn.c  ++ cn.s} ;  -- this house
+            DTFull Pl => {s = det.s ++ xie_s ++ cn.s} ;  -- these houses
+            DTNum     => {s = det.s ++ cn.c  ++ cn.s} ;  -- (these) five houses
+            DTPoss    => {s = det.s          ++ cn.s}    -- our (five) houses
+      } ;
+    UsePN pn = pn ;
+    UsePron p = p ;
+
+    DetNP det = det ;
+
+    PredetNP pred np = mkNP (pred.s ++ possessive_s ++ np.s) ;
+
+    PPartNP np v2 = mkNP ((predV v2).verb.s ++ possessive_s ++ np.s) ; ---- ??
+
+    AdvNP np adv = mkNP (adv.s ++ possessive_s ++ np.s) ;
+
+    DetQuant quant num = {
+      s = quant.s ++ num.s ; 
+      detType = case num.numType of {
+        NTFull => DTNum ;                     -- five
+        NTVoid n => case quant.detType of {
+          DTPoss => DTPoss ;                  -- our
+          _ => DTFull n                       -- these/this
+          }
+       }
+    } ;
+
+    DetQuantOrd quant num ord = {
+      s = quant.s ++ num.s ++ ord.s ;
+      detType = case num.numType of {
+        NTFull => DTNum ;                     -- five
+        NTVoid n => case quant.detType of {
+          DTPoss => DTPoss ;                  -- our
+          _ => DTFull n                       -- these/this
+          }
+        }
+      } ;
+
+    PossPron p = {
+      s = p.s ++ possessive_s ;
+      detType = DTPoss
+      } ;
+
+    NumSg = {s = [] ; numType = NTVoid Sg} ;
+    NumPl = {s = [] ; numType = NTVoid Pl} ;
+
+    NumCard n = n ** {numType = NTFull} ;
+    NumDigits d = d ** {numType = NTFull} ;
+    OrdDigits d = {s = ordinal_s ++ d.s} ;
+
+    NumNumeral numeral = numeral ** {hasC = True} ;
+    OrdNumeral numeral = {s = ordinal_s ++ numeral.s} ;
+
+    AdNum adn num = {s = adn.s ++ num.s ; hasC = True} ;
+
+    OrdSuperl a = {s = superlative_s ++ a.s} ;
+
+    DefArt = mkDet the_s ;
+    IndefArt = mkDet yi_s ; ---- in the plural ?
+
+    MassNP cn = cn ;
+
+    UseN n = n ;
+    UseN2 n = n ;
+    Use2N3 f = {s = f.s ; c = f.c ; c2 = f.c2} ;
+    Use3N3 f = {s = f.s ; c = f.c ; c2 = f.c3} ;
+
+    ComplN2 f x = {s = appPrep f.c2 x.s ++ f.s ; c = f.c} ;
+    ComplN3 f x = {s = appPrep f.c2 x.s ++ f.s ; c = f.c ; c2 = f.c3} ;
+
+    AdjCN ap cn = case ap.monoSyl of {
+            True => {s = ap.s ++ cn.s ; c = cn.c} ;
+            False => {s = ap.s ++ possessive_s ++ cn.s ; c = cn.c} 
+            } ;
+
+    RelCN cn rs = {s = rs.s ++ cn.s ; c = cn.c} ;
+    AdvCN cn ad = {s = ad.s ++ possessive_s ++ cn.s ; c = cn.c} ;
+    SentCN cn cs = {s = cs.s ++ cn.s ; c = cn.c} ;
+    ApposCN cn np = {s = np.s ++ cn.s ; c = cn.c} ;
+
+    RelNP np rs = mkNP (rs.s ++ np.s) ;
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/NumeralCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+concrete NumeralCmn of Numeral = CatCmn ** open ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+flags coding = utf8 ;
+
+
+param Qform = bai  | bai0  | shiwan  | shiwan0  ;
+param Bform = shi  | shi0  | wan  | wan0  ;
+param Zero = zero  | nozero  ;
+oper ling : Zero * Zero => Str =
+  table {<zero,z> => "ling2" ; 
+         <z,zero> => "ling2" ; 
+         <nozero,nozero> => []} ;
+oper Wan : Zero => Str =
+  table {zero => "wan4" ; 
+         nozero => []} ;
+
+oper mkD : Str -> Str -> Str = \x,_ -> word x ; -- hiding the "formal" version
+
+--lincat Numeral = {s : Str} ;
+lincat Digit = {s : Str} ;
+lincat Sub10 = {s : Str} ;
+lincat Sub100 = {inh : Zero ; s : Bform => Str} ;
+lincat Sub1000 = {inh : Zero ; s : Qform => Str} ;
+lincat Sub1000000 = {s : Str} ;
+lin num x0 =
+  {s = x0.s} ;
+
+-- 一二三四五六七八九十一百千
+-- 
+
+lin n2  =
+  {s = mkD "er4" "er4"} ;
+lin n3  =
+  {s = mkD "san1" "san1"} ;
+lin n4  =
+  {s = mkD "si4" "si4"} ;
+lin n5  =
+  {s = mkD "wu3" "wu3"} ;
+lin n6  =
+  {s = mkD "liu4" "liu4"} ;
+lin n7  =
+  {s = mkD "qi1" "qi1"} ;
+lin n8  =
+  {s = mkD "ba1" "ba1"} ;
+lin n9  =
+  {s = mkD "jiu3" "jiu3"} ;
+lin pot01  =
+  {s = mkD "yi1" "yi1"} ;
+lin pot0 d =
+  {s = d.s} ;
+lin pot110  =
+  {inh = nozero ; 
+   s = table {
+    shi => mkD "yi1shi2" "yi1shi2" ; 
+    shi0 => mkD "yi1shi2" "yi1shi2" ; 
+    wan => mkD "yi1wan4" "yi1wan4" ; 
+    wan0 => mkD "yi1wan4" "yi1wan4"}} ;
+lin pot111  =
+  {inh = nozero ; 
+   s = table {
+    shi => mkD "shi2yi1" "shi2yi1" ; 
+    shi0 => mkD "yi1shi2yi1" "yi1shi2yi1" ; 
+    wan => mkD "shi2yi1wan4" "shi2yi1wan4" ; 
+    wan0 => mkD "shi2yi1wan4" "shi2yi1wan4"}} ;
+lin pot1to19 d =
+  {inh = nozero ; 
+   s = table {
+    shi => mkD "yi1shi2" "yi1shi2" ++ d.s ; 
+    shi0 => mkD "yi1shi2" "yi1shi2" ; 
+    wan => mkD "yi1wan4" "yi1wan4" ++ d.s ++ mkD "qian1" "qian1" ; 
+    wan0 => mkD "yi1wan4" "yi1wan4" ++ d.s ++ mkD "qian1" "qian1"}} ;
+lin pot0as1 n =
+  {inh = zero ; 
+   s = table {
+    shi => n.s ; 
+    shi0 => n.s ; 
+    wan => n.s ++ mkD "qian1" "qian1" ; 
+    wan0 => n.s ++ mkD "qian1" "qian1"}} ;
+lin pot1 d =
+  {inh = zero ; 
+   s = table {
+    shi => d.s ++ mkD "shi2" "shi2" ; 
+    shi0 => d.s ++ mkD "shi2" "shi2" ; 
+    wan0 => d.s ++ "wan4" ; 
+    wan => d.s ++ "wan4"}} ;
+lin pot1plus d e =
+  {inh = nozero ; 
+   s = table {
+    shi => d.s ++ mkD "shi2" "shi2" ++ e.s ; 
+    shi0 => d.s ++ mkD "shi2" "shi2" ++ e.s ; 
+    wan => d.s ++ "wan4" ++ e.s ++ mkD "qian1" "qian1" ; 
+    wan0 => d.s ++ "wan4" ++ e.s ++ mkD "qian1" "qian1"}} ;
+lin pot1as2 n =
+  {inh = zero ; 
+   s = table {
+    bai => n.s ! shi ; 
+    bai0 => n.s ! shi ; 
+    shiwan => n.s ! wan ; 
+    shiwan0 => n.s ! wan0}} ;
+lin pot2 d =
+  {inh = zero ; 
+   s = table {
+    bai => d.s ++ mkD "bai3" "bai3" ; 
+    bai0 => d.s ++ mkD "bai3" "bai3" ; 
+    shiwan0 => d.s ++ mkD "shi2wan4" "shi2wan4" ; 
+    shiwan => d.s ++ mkD "shi2wan4" "shi2wan4"}} ;
+lin pot2plus d e =
+  {inh = nozero ; 
+   s = table {
+    bai => d.s ++ mkD "" "bai3" ++ (ling ! <e.inh,e.inh>) ++ e.s ! shi0 ; 
+    bai0 => d.s ++ mkD "" "bai3" ++ (ling ! <e.inh,e.inh>) ++ e.s ! shi0 ; 
+    shiwan => d.s ++ mkD "" "shi2" ++ (Wan ! (e.inh)) ++ e.s ! wan ; 
+    shiwan0 => d.s ++ mkD "" "shi2" ++ (Wan ! (e.inh)) ++ e.s ! wan0}} ;
+lin pot2as3 n =
+  {s = n.s ! bai} ;
+lin pot3 n =
+  {s = n.s ! shiwan} ;
+lin pot3plus n m =
+  {s = (n.s ! shiwan0) ++ (ling ! <n.inh,m.inh>) ++ m.s ! bai0} ;
+
+
+-- numerals as sequences of digits
+
+  lincat 
+    Dig = SS ;
+
+  lin
+    IDig d = d ;
+
+    IIDig d i = ss (d.s ++ i.s) ;
+
+    D_0 = ss "0" ;
+    D_1 = ss "1" ;
+    D_2 = ss "2" ;
+    D_3 = ss "3" ;
+    D_4 = ss "4" ;
+    D_5 = ss "5" ;
+    D_6 = ss "6" ;
+    D_7 = ss "7" ;
+    D_8 = ss "8" ;
+    D_9 = ss "9" ;
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/ParadigmsCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,118 @@
+resource ParadigmsCmn = open CatCmn, ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+flags coding = utf8 ;
+
+flags coding=utf8;
+oper
+  mkN = overload {
+    mkN : (man : Str) -> N 
+      = \n -> lin N (regNoun n ge_s) ;  
+    mkN : (man : Str) -> Str -> N 
+      = \n,c -> lin N (regNoun n c)
+    } ;  
+
+  mkN2 = overload {
+    mkN2 : Str -> N2
+      = \n -> lin N2 (regNoun n ge_s ** {c2 = emptyPrep}) ; ---- possessive ?
+----    mkN2 : N -> Str -> N2
+----      = \n,p -> lin N2 (n ** {c2 = mkPrep p}) ;
+    } ;
+
+  mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3
+      = \n,p,q -> lin N3 (n ** {c2 = p ; c3 = q}) ;
+
+      
+  mkPN : (john : Str) -> PN
+     = \s -> lin PN {s = word s} ; 
+
+  mkA = overload {
+    mkA : (small : Str) -> A 
+      = \a -> lin A (simpleAdj a) ;
+    mkA : (small : Str) -> Bool -> A 
+      = \a,b -> lin A (mkAdj a b) ;
+    } ; 
+
+  mkA2 : Str -> A2 = \a -> lin A2 (simpleAdj a ** {c2 = emptyPrep}) ;
+
+  mkV = overload {      
+    mkV : (walk : Str) -> V 
+      = \walk -> lin V (regVerb walk) ;
+    mkV : (arrive : Str) -> Str -> Str -> Str -> Str -> V
+      = \arrive,pp,ds,dp,ep -> lin V (mkVerb arrive pp ds dp ep neg_s) ;
+    mkV : (arrive : Str) -> Str -> Str -> Str -> Str -> Str -> V
+      = \arrive,pp,ds,dp,ep,neg -> lin V (mkVerb arrive pp ds dp ep neg) ;
+      } ;      
+
+
+  mkV2 : Str -> V2 
+      = \s -> lin V2 (regVerb s ** {c2 = emptyPrep}) ;
+
+  mkV3 = overload {
+    mkV3 : Str -> V3
+      = \s -> lin V3 (regVerb s ** {c2,c3 = emptyPrep}) ;
+    mkV3 : V -> V3
+      = \s -> lin V3 (s ** {c2,c3 = emptyPrep}) ;
+----    mkV3 : V -> Str -> Str -> V3
+----      = \v,p,q -> lin V3 (v ** {c2 = mkPrep p ; c3 = mkPrep q}) ;
+    } ;
+
+  mkVV : Str -> VV = ----
+    \v -> lin VV (regVerb v) ;
+
+  mkVQ : V -> VQ =
+    \v -> lin VQ v ;
+
+  mkVS : V -> VS =
+    \v -> lin VS v ;
+
+  mkVA : V -> VA =
+    \v -> lin VA v ;
+
+  mkV2Q : V -> V2Q =
+    \v -> lin V2Q (v ** {c2 = emptyPrep}) ; 
+----  mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q =
+----    \v,p -> lin V2Q (v ** {c2 = mkPrep p}) ; 
+
+  mkV2V : V -> V2V =
+    \v -> lin V2V (v ** {c2 = emptyPrep ; c3 = emptyPrep}) ; 
+----  mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V =
+----    \v,p,q -> lin V2V (v ** {c2 = mkPrep p ; c3 = mkPrep q}) ; 
+
+  mkV2S : V -> V2S =
+    \v -> lin V2S (v ** {c2 = emptyPrep}) ; 
+----  mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S =
+----    \v,p -> lin V2S (v ** {c2 = mkPrep p}) ; 
+
+  mkV2A : V -> V2A
+    = \v -> lin V2A (v ** {c2 = emptyPrep ; c3 = emptyPrep}) ; 
+----  mkV2A : V -> Str -> Str -> V2A
+----    = \v,p,q -> lin V2A (v ** {c2 = mkPrep p ; c3 = mkPrep q}) ; 
+
+  mkAdv = overload {
+    mkAdv : Str -> Adv 
+      = \s -> lin Adv {s = word s ; advType = ATPlace} ;
+    mkAdv : Str -> AdvType -> Adv 
+      = \s,at -> lin Adv {s = word s ; advType = at} ;
+    } ;
+
+  AdvType : Type
+   = ResCmn.AdvType ;
+  placeAdvType : AdvType
+   = ATPlace ;
+  timeAdvType : AdvType
+   = ATTime ;
+  mannerAdvType : AdvType
+   = ATManner ;
+    
+  mkPrep = overload { ---- is this the right order of the fields?
+    mkPrep : Str -> Preposition 
+     = \s -> ResCmn.mkPreposition s [] ;
+    mkPrep : Str -> Str -> Preposition 
+     = \s,t -> ResCmn.mkPreposition s t ;
+    } ;
+
+  emptyPrep : Preposition = mkPrep [] ;
+
+
+}
+

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/PhraseCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+concrete PhraseCmn of Phrase = CatCmn ** open Prelude, ResCmn in {
+
+  lin
+    PhrUtt pconj utt voc = {s = pconj.s ++ utt.s ++ voc.s} ;
+
+    UttS s = s ;
+    UttQS qs = qs ;
+    UttImpSg pol imp = {s = pol.s ++ imp.s ! pol.p} ;
+    UttImpPl pol imp = {s = pol.s ++ imp.s ! pol.p} ;
+    UttImpPol pol imp = {s = pol.s ++ imp.s ! pol.p} ; --- add politeness here?
+
+    UttIP ip = ip ;
+    UttIAdv iadv = iadv ;
+    UttNP np = np ;
+    UttCN cn = cn ;
+    UttAP ap = ap ;
+    UttCard x = x ;
+    UttVP vp = ss (infVP vp) ;
+    UttAdv adv = adv ;
+
+    NoPConj = {s = []} ;
+    PConjConj conj = ss (conj.s ! CSent).s2 ;
+
+    NoVoc = {s = []} ;
+    VocNP np = {s = np.s} ; ---- ??
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/Pinyin.hs

@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+module Pinyin where
+
+import Numeric
+import qualified Data.Map as Map
+import System
+
+-- AR 3/10/2012
+-- Chinese unicode - character - pinyin conversions
+-- character data from http://www.linguanaut.com/chinese_alphabet2.htm
+
+main = do
+  xs <- getArgs
+  s <- readFile "pinyin.txt"
+  let ws = mkList (words s)
+  case xs of
+    "c2p":_    -> interact (useMap (c2pMap ws))    -- Chinese char to Pinyin (all results)
+    "p2c":_    -> interact (useMap (p2cMap ws))    -- Pinyin to Chinese char (all results)
+    "c2u":_    -> interact (useMap (c2uMap ws))    -- Chinese char to Unicode hex
+    "u2c":_    -> interact (useMap (u2cMap ws))    -- Unicode hex to Chinese char
+    "c2pGF":_  -> interact (useMapGF (c2pMap ws))  -- char to pinyin (first result) in string literals (e.g. in GF files)
+    "p2cTry":_ -> interact (tryUseMap (p2cMap ws)) -- pinyin to char, trying syllable with all tone marks
+
+    _ -> mapM_ (putStrLn . printOne) ws
+
+mkList ws = case ws of
+  c:w:ws -> (head (map (flip Numeric.showHex "" . fromEnum) c), (c, chop w)) : mkList ws
+  _ -> []
+
+printOne (u,(c,ws)) = u ++ "\t" ++ c ++ "\t" ++ unwords ws
+
+chop = words . map unslash
+ where
+  unslash '/' = ' '
+  unslash c = c
+
+useMap :: Map.Map String String -> String -> String
+useMap = useMapWith words unwords (const "NONE")
+
+tryUseMap :: Map.Map String String -> String -> String
+tryUseMap m = unlines . map try . words where
+  try w = unwords [c ++ " (" ++ w2 ++ ")" | w2 <- alts w, Just c <- [Map.lookup w2 m]]
+  alts w = w : [w ++ show i | i <- [1 .. 4]]
+
+useMapWith :: (String -> [String]) -> ([String] -> String) -> (String -> String) -> Map.Map String String -> String -> String
+useMapWith ws uws deft m = uws . map (\w -> maybe (deft w) id (Map.lookup w m)) . ws
+
+useMapGF m s = case s of
+  'C':'h':'i':'n':cs -> "Chin" ++ useMapGF m cs  -- don't change Chinese, China
+  'C':'h':'i'    :cs -> "Cmn"  ++ useMapGF m cs  -- to change language code Chi to Cmn
+  '"':cs -> '"':convert cs
+  c  :cs -> c  :useMapGF m cs
+  _ -> s
+ where
+  convert cs = case cs of
+    '"':s -> '"' : useMapGF m s
+    c  :s -> maybe [c] (head . words) (Map.lookup [c] m) ++ convert s
+    _ -> cs 
+
+c2pMap ws = Map.fromList [(c,unwords ps) | (_,(c,ps)) <- ws]
+p2cMap ws = Map.fromListWith (++) [(p,c) | (_,(c,ps)) <- ws, p <- ps] -- store all chars with the same pinyin
+c2uMap ws = Map.fromList [(c,u)          | (u,(c,_))  <- ws]
+u2cMap ws = Map.fromList [(u,c)          | (u,(c,_))  <- ws]
+
+

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/QuestionCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+concrete QuestionCmn of Question = CatCmn ** 
+  open ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+  flags optimize=all_subs ;
+
+  lin
+
+    QuestCl cl = {s = \\p,a => cl.s ! p ! a ++ question_s} ; --- plus redup questions
+
+    QuestVP ip vp = {
+      s = \\p,a => ip.s ++ vp.prePart ++ useVerb vp.verb ! p ! a ++ vp.compl
+      } ;
+ 
+    QuestSlash ip cls =  {
+      s =\\p,a => cls.c2.prepPre ++ cls.np ++ cls.c2.prepMain ++ cls.vp ! p ! a ++ 
+                  possessive_s ++ di_s ++ ip.s
+      } ;       
+      
+    QuestIAdv iadv cl = {s = \\p,a => cl.np ++ iadv.s ++ cl.vp ! p ! a} ;
+
+    QuestIComp icomp np = {s = \\p,a => np.s ++ icomp.s} ; ---- order
+
+    PrepIP p ip = ss (appPrep p ip.s) ;
+
+    AdvIP ip adv = ss (adv.s ++ possessive_s ++ ip.s) ; ---- adding de
+
+    IdetCN det cn = {s = det.s ++ cn.c ++ cn.s} ; ---- number?
+
+    IdetIP idet = idet ;
+
+    IdetQuant iquant num = ss (iquant.s ++ num.s) ; ---- 
+
+    AdvIAdv i a = ss (a.s ++ i.s) ;
+
+    CompIAdv a = ss (zai_s ++ a.s) ;
+
+    CompIP ip = ss (copula_s ++ ip.s) ;
+
+}
+

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/RelativeCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+concrete RelativeCmn of Relative = CatCmn ** open ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+  lin
+    RelCl cl = {s = \\p,a => cl.s ! p ! a ++ relative_s} ; ---- ??
+    RelVP rp vp = {
+       s = \\p,a => vp.prePart ++ useVerb vp.verb ! p ! a ++ vp.compl ++ rp.s
+       } ; ---- ??
+    RelSlash rp slash = {s = \\p,a => slash.s ! p ! a ++ appPrep slash.c2 rp.s} ;
+    FunRP p np rp = ss (appPrep p np.s ++ rp.s) ; ---- ??
+    IdRP = ss relative_s ;
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/ResCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
+--# -path=.:../abstract:../common:../../prelude
+
+--1 Thai auxiliary operations.
+--
+---- This module contains operations that are needed to make the
+---- resource syntax work. To define everything that is needed to
+---- implement $Test$, it moreover contains regular lexical
+---- patterns needed for $Lex$.
+--
+resource ResCmn = ParamX ** open Prelude in {
+
+  flags coding = utf8 ;
+
+  oper
+
+-- strings ----
+
+  defaultStr = "" ;
+
+  than_s = "bi3" ;
+  progressive_s = defaultStr ;
+  possessive_s = "de" ; -- also used for AP + NP
+  deAdvV_s = "de" ; -- between Adv and V
+  deVAdv_s = "de2" ; -- between V and Adv
+  imperneg_s = neg_s ;
+  conjThat = emptyStr ; ----
+  reflPron = word "zi4ji3" ;   -- pron + refl
+  passive_s = defaultStr ;
+  relative_s = possessive_s ; -- relative
+  superlative_s = "zui4" ; -- superlative, sup + adj + de
+  zai_s = "zai4" ;  -- copula for place
+  you_s = "you3" ; -- to have
+
+  copula_s = "shi4" ;
+  exist_s = word "cun2zai4" ;
+  neg_s = "bu4" ;
+  question_s = "ma3" ;
+  yi_s = "yi1" ;
+  ordinal_s = "di4" ;
+  xie_s = "xie1" ;
+  the_s = "na3" ;
+  geng_s = "geng1" ; -- more, in comparison
+
+  zai_V = mkVerb "zai4" [] [] [] [] "bu4" ;
+  fullstop_s = "." ;
+  questmark_s = "?" ;
+  exclmark_s = "!" ;
+  ge_s = "ge4" ;
+  di_s = "shi4" ; -- used in QuestSlash
+
+  emptyStr = [] ;
+
+
+-- Write the characters that constitute a word separately. This enables straightforward tokenization.
+
+  bword : Str -> Str -> Str = \x,y -> x + y ; -- change to x ++ y to treat words as separate tokens
+
+  word : Str -> Str = \s -> case s of {
+      x@? + y@? + z@? + u@? => bword x (bword y (bword z u)) ;
+      x@? + y@? + z@? => bword x (bword y z) ;
+      x@? + y@? => bword x y ;
+      _ => s
+      } ;
+
+  ssword : Str -> SS = \s -> ss (word s) ;
+
+------------------------------------------------ from Jolene
+
+-- parameters
+
+param
+    Aspect = APlain | APerf | ADurStat | ADurProg | AExper ;  ---- APlain added by AR
+    ConjForm = CPhr CPosType | CSent;
+    CPosType = CAPhrase | CNPhrase | CVPhrase ;
+    DeForm = DeNoun | NdNoun ;    -- parameter created for noun with/out partical "de"
+
+    AdvType = ATPlace | ATTime | ATManner ;
+
+-- parts of speech
+
+oper
+
+  VP = {verb : Verb ; compl : Str ; prePart : Str} ;
+  NP = {s : Str} ; 
+
+-- for morphology
+
+  Noun : Type = {s : Str; c : Str} ;
+  Adj  : Type = {s : Str; monoSyl: Bool} ;
+  Verb : Type = {s : Str ; pp,ds,dp,ep : Str ; neg : Str} ;
+
+  regNoun : Str -> Str -> Noun = \s,c -> {s = word s ; c = word c};
+
+  mkAdj : Str -> Bool -> Adj = \s,b -> {s = word s ; monoSyl = b};
+
+  complexAP : Str -> Adj = \s -> {s = s ; monoSyl = False} ;
+
+  simpleAdj : Str -> Adj = \s -> case s of {
+    ? => mkAdj s True ; -- monosyllabic
+    _ => mkAdj s False
+    } ;
+
+  copula : Verb = mkVerb "shi4" [] [] [] [] "bu4" ;
+
+  regVerb : (walk : Str) -> Verb = \v -> 
+    mkVerb v "le" "zhao1" "zai4" "guo4" "mei2" ;
+
+  mkVerb : (v : Str) -> (pp,ds,dp,ep,neg : Str) -> Verb = \v,pp,ds,dp,ep,neg -> 
+    {s = word v ; pp = pp ; ds = ds ; dp = dp ; ep = ep ; neg = neg} ;
+
+  useVerb : Verb -> Polarity => Aspect => Str = \v -> 
+    table {
+          Pos => table {
+            APlain   => v.s ;
+            APerf    => v.s ++ v.pp ;
+            ADurStat => v.s ++ v.ds ;
+            ADurProg => v.dp ++ v.s ;
+            AExper   => v.s ++ v.ep
+            } ;
+          Neg => table {
+            APlain   => v.neg ++ v.s ; --- neg?
+            APerf    => "bu4" ++ v.s ++ v.pp ;
+            ADurStat => "bu4" ++ v.s ;
+            ADurProg => v.neg ++ v.dp ++ v.s ;  -- mei or bu
+            AExper   => v.neg ++ v.s ++ v.ep
+            }
+     } ;
+
+  infVP : VP -> Str = \vp -> vp.prePart ++ vp.verb.s ++ vp.compl ; 
+
+  predV : Verb -> VP = \v -> {
+      verb = v ; 
+      compl = [] ;
+      prePart = [] ;
+      } ; 
+
+  insertObj : NP -> VP -> VP = \np,vp -> {
+     verb  = vp.verb ;
+     compl = np.s ++ vp.compl ;
+     prePart = vp.prePart
+     } ; 
+
+  insertObjPost : NP -> VP -> VP = \np,vp -> {
+     verb  = vp.verb ;
+     compl = vp.compl ++ np.s ;
+     prePart = vp.prePart
+     } ; 
+
+   insertAdv : SS -> VP -> VP = \adv,vp -> {
+     verb  = vp.verb ;
+     compl = vp.compl ;
+     prePart = adv.s
+     } ; 
+
+   insertExtra : SS -> VP -> VP = \ext,vp ->
+     insertObjPost ext vp ;
+
+-- clauses: keep np and vp separate to enable insertion of IAdv
+
+   Clause : Type = {
+     s  : Polarity => Aspect => Str ; 
+     np : Str; 
+     vp : Polarity => Aspect => Str
+     } ; 
+
+
+   mkClause = overload {
+     mkClause : Str -> Verb -> Clause = \np,v -> mkClauseCompl np (useVerb v) [] ;
+     mkClause : Str -> (Polarity => Aspect => Str) -> Str -> Clause = mkClauseCompl ;
+     mkClause : Str -> Verb -> Str -> Clause = \subj,verb,obj ->
+       mkClauseCompl subj (useVerb verb) obj ;
+     mkClause : Str -> VP -> Clause = \np,vp -> 
+       mkClauseCompl np (\\p,a => vp.prePart ++ useVerb vp.verb ! p ! a) vp.compl ;
+     } ;
+ 
+   mkClauseCompl : Str -> (Polarity => Aspect => Str) -> Str -> Clause = \np,vp,compl -> {
+     s = \\p,a => np ++ vp ! p ! a ++ compl ;
+     np = np ;
+     vp = \\p,a => vp ! p ! a ++ compl
+     } ;
+   
+
+-- for structural words
+
+param 
+  DetType = DTFull Number | DTNum | DTPoss ;  -- this, these, five, our
+  NumType = NTFull | NTVoid Number ;          -- five, sg, pl
+
+oper
+  Determiner = {s : Str ; detType : DetType} ;
+
+  mkDet = overload {
+    mkDet : Str ->            Determiner = \s   -> {s = s ; detType = DTFull Sg} ;
+    mkDet : Str -> Number  -> Determiner = \s,n -> {s = s ; detType = DTFull n} ;
+    mkDet : Str -> DetType -> Determiner = \s,d -> {s = s ; detType = d} ;
+    } ;
+
+  mkQuant : Str -> {s : Str} = ss ;
+
+  pronNP : (s : Str) -> NP = \s -> {
+    s = word s
+    } ;
+    
+  mkPreposition : Str -> Str -> Preposition = \s,b -> {
+    prepMain = word s ;
+    prepPre = word b
+    } ;
+    
+  mkSubj : Str -> Str -> {prePart : Str ; sufPart : Str} = \p,s -> {
+    prePart = word p ;
+    sufPart = word s
+    } ;
+
+  Preposition = {prepMain : Str ; prepPre : Str} ;  
+
+-- added by AR
+
+  mkNP : Str -> NP = ss ;
+
+  appPrep : Preposition -> Str -> Str = \prep,s -> 
+    prep.prepPre ++ s ++ prep.prepMain ;
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/SentenceCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+concrete SentenceCmn of Sentence = CatCmn ** 
+  open Prelude, ResCmn in {
+
+  flags optimize=all_subs ;
+
+  lin
+
+    PredVP np vp = mkClause np.s vp ;
+
+    PredSCVP sc vp = mkClause sc.s vp ;
+
+    ImpVP vp = {
+      s = table {
+        Pos =>          infVP vp ;
+        Neg => neg_s ++ infVP vp 
+        }
+      } ;
+
+    SlashVP np vp = 
+      mkClauseCompl np.s (\\p,a => vp.prePart ++ useVerb vp.verb ! p ! a) vp.compl 
+      ** {c2 = vp.c2} ;
+
+    SlashVS np vs sslash = <mkClause np.s vs sslash.s : Clause> ** {c2 = sslash.c2} ;
+      
+
+    -- yet another reason for discontinuity of clauses
+    AdvSlash slash adv = 
+      mkClause slash.np (<\\p,a => adv.s ++ slash.vp ! p ! a : Polarity => Aspect => Str>) [] 
+         ** {c2 = slash.c2} ;
+  
+    SlashPrep cl prep = cl ** {c2 = prep} ;
+  
+    EmbedS  s  = ss (conjThat ++ s.s) ;
+    EmbedQS qs = qs ;
+    EmbedVP vp = ss (infVP vp) ;
+
+    UseCl  t p cl = {s = cl.s ! p.p ! t.t} ; 
+    UseQCl t p cl = {s = cl.s ! p.p ! t.t} ; 
+    UseRCl t p cl = {s = cl.s ! p.p ! t.t} ; 
+    UseSlash t p cl = {s = cl.s ! p.p ! t.t ; c2 = cl.c2} ;
+
+    AdvS a s = ss (a.s ++ s.s) ;
+
+    RelS s r = ss (s.s ++ r.s) ;
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/StructuralCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,164 @@
+concrete StructuralCmn of Structural = CatCmn ** 
+  open ParadigmsCmn, ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+  flags coding = utf8 ;
+
+lin
+    every_Det = mkDet "mei3" Sg ;
+        
+    this_Quant = mkDet "zhe4" ;
+    that_Quant = mkDet "na3" ;
+
+    i_Pron = pronNP "wo3" ;
+    youSg_Pron = pronNP "ni3"  ;
+    he_Pron = pronNP "ta1" ;
+    she_Pron = pronNP "ta1" ;
+    we_Pron = pronNP "wo3men" ;
+    youPl_Pron = pronNP "ni3men" ;
+    they_Pron = pronNP "ta1men" ;
+
+    very_AdA = ssword "fei1chang2" ;    
+
+    by8means_Prep = mkPrep "pang2bian1" [] ;
+    in_Prep = mkPrep "li3" [];
+    possess_Prep = mkPrep "de" [];
+    with_Prep = mkPrep "yi1qi3" "he2"; 
+ 
+and_Conj = {s = table {
+                    CPhr CNPhrase => mkConjForm "he2" ;
+                    CPhr CAPhrase => mkConjForm "er2" ;
+                    CPhr CVPhrase => mkConjForm "you4" ;
+                    CSent =>  mkConjForm []
+                          }
+                } ;
+ or_Conj  = {s = table {
+                    CPhr _ => mkConjForm "huo4" ;
+                    CSent => mkConjForm "hai2shi4"
+                          }
+                } ;
+
+    although_Subj = mkSubj "sui1ran2" "dan4";
+    because_Subj = mkSubj "yin1wei2" "suo3yi3" ;
+    when_Subj = mkSubj [] "deshi2hou4" ; 
+
+here_Adv = mkAdv "zhe4li3" ;
+there_Adv = mkAdv "na3li3" ;
+whoSg_IP, whoPl_IP = mkIPL "shei2" ;
+whatSg_IP, whatPl_IP = mkIPL " shen2ma" ;
+where_IAdv = mkIAdvL "na3li3" ;
+when_IAdv = mkIAdvL "shen2mashi2hou4" ;
+how_IAdv = mkIAdvL "ru2he2" ;
+all_Predet = ssword "suo3you3" ;
+many_Det = mkDet "duo1" Pl ;
+someSg_Det = mkDet (word "yi1xie1") Sg ;
+somePl_Det = mkDet (word "yi1xie1") Sg ;
+few_Det = mkDet "shao3" Pl ;
+other_A = mkA "qi2ta1" ;
+
+oper
+  mkIPL, mkIAdvL, mkAdA, mkIDetL, mkPConjL, mkCAdv, mkIQuant = ssword ;
+
+-- hsk
+
+lin
+
+
+above_Prep = mkPrep "shang4bian1" ;
+after_Prep = mkPrep "yi3hou4" ;
+under_Prep = mkPrep "xia4" ;
+why_IAdv = mkIAdvL "wei2shen2ma" ;
+too_AdA = mkAdA "tai4" ;
+
+before_Prep = mkPrep "cong1qian2" ; --s
+between_Prep = mkPrep "zhi1jian1" ; --s
+but_PConj = mkPConjL "dan4shi4" ; --s
+
+
+    can_VV  = mkVerb "neng2"  [] [] [] [] "bu4" ;
+    must_VV = mkVerb "bi4xu1" [] [] [] [] "bu4" ;  ---- False "bu4neng2"
+    want_VV = mkVerb "xiang3" [] [] [] [] "bu4" ;
+
+can8know_VV = mkV "hui4" [] [] [] [] "bu4" ; ----
+
+
+except_Prep = mkPrep "chu2le" "yi3wai4" ; --s
+for_Prep = mkPrep "wei2le" ; --s
+from_Prep = mkPrep "cong1" ; --s
+---how8many_IDet = mkIDet "ji1" ; --s
+---how8much_IDet = mkIDet "duo1shao3" ; --s
+in8front_Prep = mkPrep "qian2bian1" ; --s
+it_Pron = pronNP "ta1" ; --s
+---less_CAdv = mkCAdv "shao3" ; --s
+much_Det = mkDet "duo1" Sg ; --s
+---more_CAdv = mkCAdv "geng1" ; --s
+---most_Predet = mkPredet "zui4" ; --s
+no_Quant = mkDet "bu4" ; --s
+not_Predet = ssword "bu4" ;
+---only_Predet = mkPredet "qi2" ; --s
+otherwise_PConj = mkPConjL "hai2shi4" ; --s
+to_Prep = mkPrep "wang3" ; --s
+---which_IQuant = mkIQuant "na3" ; --s
+
+have_V2 = mkV2 "you3" ;
+
+yes_Utt = ss copula_s ;
+no_Utt = ss neg_s ;
+
+oper
+  mkConjForm : Str -> {s1,s2 : Str} = \s -> {s1 = [] ; s2 = word s} ;
+
+-- manually by AR
+
+lin
+  always_AdV = ssword "yi1zhi2" ;
+  part_Prep = mkPrep possessive_s ;  
+  language_title_Utt = ssword "zhong1wen2" ;  
+  please_Voc = ss "qing3" ;
+  quite_Adv = mkAdA "de2hen3" ;
+
+-- just missing
+
+lin
+almost_AdA = ssword "ji1hu1" ;  
+almost_AdN = ssword "ji1hu1" ;  
+--as_CAdv = ssword "shen2ma" ;   -- as good as X
+at_least_AdN = ssword "zui4shao3" ;  -- at least five
+at_most_AdN = ssword "zui4duo1" ;
+behind_Prep = mkPrep "hou4mian4" "zai4";  
+--both7and_DConj = ssword "shen2ma" ;  -- both - and
+by8agent_Prep = mkPrep "bei4" ;    -- by for agent in passive 
+                                  -- [mark] 被
+during_Prep = mkPrep "qi1jian1" "zai4" ;  -- [mark] often equivalent to nothing
+                                   -- translation for "he swam during this summer. " and "he swam this summer." are often the same
+--either7or_DConj = ssword "shen2ma" ;  
+everybody_NP = ssword "mei3ge4ren2" ;  -- [mark] "mei3ge4ren2": 每(every)+个(classifier)+人(person)
+everything_NP = ssword "mei3jian4shi4" ;  -- [mark] "mei3jian4shi4": 每(every)+件(classifier)+事(thing)
+everywhere_Adv = mkAdv "dao4chu3" ;  
+here7from_Adv = mkAdv "cong1zhe4li3" ;  -- from here
+here7to_Adv = mkAdv "dao4zhe4li3" ;    -- to here
+							    -- [mark] "cong1zhe4li3" 从(from) 这里(here)
+								--        "dao4zhe4li3" 到( to ) 这里(here)
+how8many_IDet = ssword "duo1shao3" ;  
+how8much_IAdv = ssword "duo1shao3" ;  
+if_Subj = mkSubj "ru2guo3" "jiu4" ;  -- [mark] "jiu4" often comes between NP and VP
+--less_CAdv = ssword "shen2ma" ;  -- less good than
+--more_CAdv = ssword "shen2ma" ;  
+most_Predet = ssword "da4duo1shu3" ;  
+nobody_NP = ssword "mei2ren2" ;  
+nothing_NP = ssword "mei2you3shen2ma" ;  
+on_Prep = mkPrep "shang4" "zai4" ;    
+only_Predet = ssword "qi2you3" ;  -- only John
+so_AdA = ssword "ru2ci3" ;  
+somebody_NP = ssword "mou3ren2" ;  
+something_NP = ssword "mou3shi4" ;  -- [mark] in sent, it depends on the context
+somewhere_Adv = mkAdv "mou3chu3" ;  
+that_Subj = mkSubj [] ", " ;  -- that + S [mark] comma
+there7from_Adv = mkAdv "cong1na3li3" ;  -- from there
+there7to_Adv = mkAdv "dao4na3li3" ;  
+therefore_PConj = ssword "yin1ci3" ;  
+through_Prep = mkPrep "tong1guo4" ;  
+which_IQuant = ssword [] ;  -- [mark] in sent, it depends on the context
+without_Prep = mkPrep "mei2you3" []; 
+youPol_Pron = ssword "nin2" ;  -- polite you 
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/SymbolCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+--# -path=.:../abstract:../common
+
+concrete SymbolCmn of Symbol = CatCmn ** open Prelude, ResCmn in {
+
+  flags coding = utf8;
+
+ lin
+  SymbPN i = i ;
+  IntPN i  = i ;
+  FloatPN i = i ;
+  NumPN i = i ;
+  CNIntNP cn i = {
+    s = cn.s ++ i.s ;
+    c = cn.c
+    } ;
+  CNSymbNP det cn xs = ss (det.s ++ cn.s ++ xs.s) ; ----  
+  CNNumNP cn i = {
+    s = cn.s ++ i.s ;
+    c = cn.c
+    } ;
+
+  SymbS sy = sy ; 
+  SymbNum sy = sy ;
+  SymbOrd sy = sy ;
+
+lincat 
+
+  Symb, [Symb] = SS ;
+
+lin
+  MkSymb s = s ;
+
+  BaseSymb = infixSS "" ;
+  ConsSymb = infixSS "" ;
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/TenseCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+concrete TenseCmn of Tense = 
+  CatCmn [Tense,Temp], TenseX [Ant,Pol,AAnter,ASimul,PNeg,PPos] ** open ResCmn in {
+
+  lin
+    TTAnt t a = {s = t.s ++ a.s ; t = t.t} ;
+
+    ---- ??
+    TPres = {s = [] ; t = APlain} ;
+    TPast = {s = [] ; t = APerf} ;   
+    TFut  = {s = [] ; t = ADurProg} ;   
+    TCond = {s = [] ; t = ADurStat} ;
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/TextCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+concrete TextCmn of Text = CommonX - [Temp,Tense,Adv] ** open ResCmn in {
+
+-- No punctuation - but make sure to leave spaces between sentences!
+
+  lin
+    TEmpty = {s = []} ;
+    TFullStop x xs = {s = x.s ++ fullstop_s ++ xs.s} ;
+    TQuestMark x xs = {s = x.s ++ questmark_s ++ xs.s} ;
+    TExclMark x xs = {s = x.s ++ exclmark_s ++ xs.s} ;
+
+}

lib/src/chinese/pinyin/VerbCmn.gf

@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+concrete VerbCmn of Verb = CatCmn ** open ResCmn, Prelude in {
+
+  flags optimize=all_subs ;
+
+  lin
+    UseV = predV ;
+
+    SlashV2a v = predV v ** {c2 = v.c2} ;
+
+    Slash2V3 v np = insertObj np (predV v) ** {c2 = v.c3} ; ---- to check arg order
+    Slash3V3 v np = insertObj np (predV v) ** {c2 = v.c2} ;
+
+    SlashV2A v ap = insertObj ap (predV v) ** {c2 = v.c2} ; 
+
+    SlashV2V v vp = insertObj (mkNP (infVP vp)) (predV v) ** {c2 = v.c2} ;
+    SlashV2S v s  = insertObj s (predV v) ** {c2 = v.c2} ; 
+    SlashV2Q v q  = insertObj q (predV v) ** {c2 = v.c2} ; 
+
+    ComplVV v vp = {
+      verb = v ;
+      compl = vp.verb.s ++ vp.compl ;
+      prePart = vp.prePart
+      } ;
+
+    ComplVS v s  = insertObj s  (predV v) ; 
+    ComplVQ v q  = insertObj q  (predV v) ; 
+    ComplVA v ap = insertObj ap (predV v) ; 
+
+    ComplSlash vp np = insertObj (mkNP (appPrep vp.c2 np.s)) vp ;
+
+    UseComp comp = comp ;
+
+    SlashVV v vp = ---- too simple?
+      insertObj (mkNP (infVP vp)) (predV v) ** {c2 = vp.c2} ;
+
+    SlashV2VNP v np vp = 
+      insertObj np
+        (insertObj (mkNP (infVP vp)) (predV v)) ** {c2 = vp.c2} ;
+
+    AdvVP vp adv = case adv.advType of {
+      ATManner => insertObj (ss (deVAdv_s ++ adv.s)) vp ;                -- he sleeps well
+      _ => insertAdv (ss (zai_V.s ++ adv.s)) vp     -- he sleeps in the house / today
+      } ;
+
+    AdVVP adv vp = insertAdv adv vp ; 
+    
+    ReflVP vp = insertObj (mkNP reflPron) vp ;
+
+    PassV2 v = insertObj (mkNP passive_s) (predV v) ; ----
+
+    CompAP ap = insertObj (mkNP ap.s) (predV copula) ; ---- hen / bu
+
+    CompNP np = insertObj np (predV copula) ; ----
+
+    CompCN cn = insertObj cn (predV copula) ; ----
+
+    CompAdv adv = insertObj adv (predV zai_V) ;
+
+}
+